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ThePoliticsofLiteraryProduction: TheReactiontotheFrenchRevolutionand theTransformationoftheEnglishLiteraryPeriodical ZEYNEPTENGERandPAULTROLANDER Ithaslongbeennotedthattherewasasignificantchangeintheformatof Englishliteraryreviewsandmagazinesbetweentheyears1780and1830. Recentscholars,whoseeffortshavefocusedlargelyonchangesinliterary reviewing,includingDerekRoper,JohnHaydon,JonKlancherandJoanne Shattock,havearguedfortheimportanceoftheshiftfromthemore comprehensiveformatsofeighteenth-centuryreviewsandmagazinesthathad attemptedtoaccountfortheentire"republicofletters"tothemoreselective andcriticalformatsoflaterRomanticandVictorianliteraryperiodicals.1 DerekRoper,investigatingthecausesofthisshiftinhisstudyReviewing BeforetheEdinburgh,maintainsthataselectiveformatemergedamongliteraryreviewsbecausethenumberofbookspublishedincreased significantlyafter1780.Hecitesstatementsbybothreviewersandeditors thatsuggesttheycouldnolongercopewiththerisingtideofworksneeding tobereviewed,andhereasonsaswellthatreadershadgrownwearyofa formatnecessitatingtheconsiderationofthefloodofmediocreworksthat chokedtheliterarymarket.2Thesefactorsnodoubthadaneffectonthe shiftintheformatsofreviews,but,asRoperhimselfpointsout,these conditionshadexistedlongbeforeanyrealeditorialshiftoccurred. Referencestothelowqualityofworkspublishedfortheliterarymarkethad beenprevalentatleastsincethe1720swhenAlexanderPopeprophesiedthat Londonwouldbeoverwhelmedbytheruleofliterarydunces,andasearlyas 1772theCriticalReviewhadnotedthatitseffortstosurveyallbook-length worksnecessitatedthatitvarythelengthofitsreviewsaccordingto"the regard[to]which[eachworkwas]justlyentitled."Throughouttheclosing twodecadesoftheeighteenthcentury,therewasagrowinginterestonthe 279 280/TENGERandTROLANDER partofeditorsinreducingthenumberofworkstheyreviewedinaneffortto containthesizeandpriceoftheirperiodicals.3 Itisourcontentionthat,althoughtherewasadesiretoadjusteditorial practicesandtofindajustificationforamoreselectiveapproach,itwaseffectuallyimpossibleforliteraryperiodicals (magazinesaswellasreviews) toshifttheiremphasesawayfromthecomprehensivecoverageofallmodes ofwritinguntiltherewerechangesinthediscourseformationsthatshaped andvalidatedcritical,literary,andeditorialpractices.Thesechangescould emergeonlyafterthepoliticalreactiontothediscourseofphilosophical reform—whichconservativesarguedhadcausedtheFrenchRevolution—had gainedpopularfavorinEngland. Before1790manyperiodicalsandmagazines,proclaimingtheireffortsto actas"repositories"oftheartsandsciencesandasimpartialandunpreju- dicedrecordsoftheprogressoflearning,alignedthemselveswiththeBritish variantofphilosophicalreformwhichwasrootedinCommonwealthman ideologyandtheScottishEnlightenment.4Regardlessoftheirpolitical affiliations,suchpublicationsfrequentlyaffirmedthattheirtaskwasto exploreallareasofknowledgeandmakesuchknowledgeaccessibleand entertainingtothereader.Indoingso,theybelievedthattheywereserving thecommongoodbyreformingthepublic'smoralsandcreatingrational individuals.Publicationsthat"attemptedtocatertoallpersuasions,"5such astheGentleman'sMagazineandLondonMagazine,aswellasthosethat wereconsideredpartisan,suchastheMonthlyReviewandtheCritical Review,equallyidentifiedwiththisprogram.Theydeclaredthattheirgoal wastoprovidecompletecoverageof"theproductionsofthepress,"and establishededitorialpolicies,includinganonymousreviewing,toensure impartiality.TheCriticalReviews'ssubtitle,the"AnnalsofLiterature," wasindicativeoftheaimsandintentionsofmanyperiodicalpublicationsof theperiod. ButasthepoliticalreactiontotheFrenchRevolutiongainedfavorafter 1792,therewasatendencytoshiftthegenealogyofthereformmovement fromaBritishprovenancetoanallegedFrenchoneandtocharacterizere- formas"Jacobinical"andpredicatedon"Frenchprinciples."6Thewholesale negationofthelanguageandaimsofphilosophicalreformpoliticizedand greatlydiminishedthesocialprestigeofthisdiscoursewhichhadvalidated perodicals'comprehensivecoverageofallareasofknowledge.Inthepro- cess,conservativesinvertedpreviousassumptionsaboutthenatureandaims ofliteraryandcriticaldiscourse,oftenvaluingprejudice,partiality,and personalityattheexpenseofreason,universality,generalnature,andthe stricturesofbenevolence.Discursiveandepistemologicalpracticesthatreformistideologyhadmarginalizedwerenowpriviledgedandgaveimpetusto thepushtoconstituteandjustifyeditorialandwritingpracticesthatwereat oncemoreselective,critical,andpersonal.Butmoreimportantthanthese changes,thisvoltefaceonthepartofliteraryreviewsandmagazinesboth directlychallengedandunderminedneoclassicalassumptionsconcerninga PoliticsofLiteraryProductionI281 unifiedreadingpublic,anditreconstitutedtheliteraryfieldasapublicspectacle(ratherthanapublicsphere),thechiefworkofwhichwasto deployandcelebratediscursiverepresentationsofliterarypersonality,rather thanconstitutedomainsofmoralandsocialknowledge.7 Theaspirationtoprovidecomprehensivecoverageofallareasoflearning andtherebyaidintheintellectualandmoraleducationoftheBritishnation waspopularbeforeandthroughoutthe1780s.Establishedperiodicals,as wellasnewerones,definedtheirgoalsbyemployingthelanguageof philosophicalreform.IntheLondonMagazine's1781dedicationtoKing GeorgeIII,theeditorexpressedhopethatthepublication"afforded... rationalentertainment,"claimingthatitwasa"repositoryforthelaboursof thelearned,afundofhistoricalinformation,andafaithfulregisterofpublic andprivateeventsofthecurrenttime."8Itsbook-reviewingdepartmentwas titled"AnImpartialAccountofNewPublications."In1783,theeditorsof theEnglishReviewjustifiedthereview'sinaugurationbyassertingthatit would"ascertaintheprogressiveimprovements,aswellasthereigning folliesofmankind"byprovidinga"faithfulreportofeverynew Publication,"andclaimedthatbecausetheywere"freeandindependentof anyinfluence"theirreviewerswerecapableof"exercisfing]thatcandourand impartiality...sooftenprofessed,andsoseldompracticed."9Similarly, inthe1788prefacetotheUniversalMagazine(1788),whichnot coincidentallyhadafrontispieceentitled"TheContemplativePhilosopher," itwasclaimedthatmagazinesingeneralhadabeneficialeffectonthe Englishpublicbyimprovingmoralsandmanners.10Andintheprefaceto itssixtiethvolume(1790),theeditorsoftheGentleman'sMagazine commendedthemselvesforfulfillingtheirdutyasa"Chronicleofthe Times"andforcontributingtothe"generalFundofpublicEntertainment andInstruction."Theiraimwastoactasanunbiased"record"or"Picture" of"Objectfs]ofResearch,"anationalwarehouseof"copiousStoresof information"andof"valuableMaterials."11 Mostliteraryperiodicals,includingthosejustcited,changedtheireditorial policiesoncetheconservativereactiontotheFrenchRevolutionbeganto dominatetheEnglishpoliticalsceneafter1792.Beforethereactiontothe FrenchRevolutionhadhardenedattitudestowardreforminEngland,literary periodicals,includingbothreviewsandmagazines,persistedinadvocating thephilosophicalidealsofimpartiality,moralreform,andtheprogressive improvementofhumanityandsociety.Butafter1792,asthereformist agendaofphilosophicaldiscourseincreasinglycametobeassociatedwith theviolenceoftheFrenchRevolution,therewasagradualdeclineinsuch assertions.Especiallyinthelate1790s,asannouncementsproliferated trumpetingpartialitytoallthingsBritish—includingnation,temperament, 282/TENGERandTROLANDER constitution,andpoliticalregime—statementslinkingliterarymagazines andperiodicalstophilosophicalreformtaperedoff. Ascanbeexpected,thesechangesineditorialpolicydidnotoccur overnight.Indeed,rightaftertheFrenchRevolution,literarymagazinesand reviewscorrelatedtheirreformistfunctionwiththatoftheRevolution. Hence,forinstance,intheprefatorystatementstothefirstvolumeofthe MonthlyReview'snewseries(1790),theeditorRalphGriffithscelebrated, albeitindirectly,thecontributionsoftherepublicofletterstopoliticaleventsofthetime,alludingwithoutreservationtothenascentFrenchRevolution: Amidthefluctuationsofempiresandofstates,itwasnottobe expected,thatthesciencesandtheartsshouldstopatanygivenstage ofimprovement:norhasthisbeenthecase.Onthecontrary,itis obviousthat,intheirwideandrapidprogress,theyhavetakenthelead inallthosegrandeventswhichhavedistinguishedthepresentcentury; andthatthediffusionofknowledge,andtheprogressofmental improvement,arealwaysthecertainforerunnersofgreatandhappy revolutions,inthecivilaswellasinthemoralworld.12 Griffithsassertedthat"THEAUTHORSOFTHELITERARYJOURNALS maybeallowedtoclaimnoinconsiderableportion"ofthis"praise."The editorsoftheGentleman'sMagazine,aswell,commentingontheeventsof 1790,claimedthat"thepresentYearhasbeenpregnantwithEventsofthe highestImportancebothtoChurchandState;andthoseithasbeenour StudytodetailwiththestrictestImpartiality."Afterthisveiledreferenceto eventsinFrance,theeditorapprovinglycalledattentiontotheir"Narrative oftheProceedingsoftheNationalAssemblyinFrance...whichan elegantFemaleWriter[radicalHelenMariaWilliams]...calls'themost sublimeSpectaclethateverwasrepresentedontheTheatreoftheEarth.'"13 FollowingtheSeptembermassacresin1792andLouisXVI'sexecution thefollowingJanuary,magazinesandindividualsassociatedwithreform werenolongerpraisedfor"greatandhappyrevolutions,"butblamedfora bloodyone.EnglishreactiontotheseeventsinFrancepromptedmany periodicalstoswitchtheirpositionsinrespecttophilosophicalreformand theFrenchRevolution.Theybegantopointtothedangersofreformand definedtheirdutytoactasachecktoradicalinnovation. Itwasnotanaccidentthatthelanguageadoptedtocriticizeenlightened reformatthistimeechoedEdmundBurke'sindictmentofrationalisminthe ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance(1790).Burke'sargumentagainst reformandrevolutionchallengedreformistassumptionsthatphilosophical discoursecouldconstituteamodelofgeneralnature,aswellasthe convictionthatthegoalofwritersshouldbethereformofitsnation's PoliticsofLiteraryProductionI283 readersandthefurtheringofprogress.InapassagewhoseideaswouldbeechoedbyTorypublicationsthroughoutthedecade,Burkenotonlyques- tionedtheefficacyofreasonineffectuatingreform,hesubordinateditto liberalreform'snemesis,"prejudice."Bythatsimplereversal,hesignaled hisaimtoseverallwritingaboutpoliticsfromphilosophicaldiscourse: InthisenlightenedageIamboldenoughtoconfess,thatweare generallymenofuntaughtfeelings;thatinsteadofcastingawayallour oldprejudices,wecherishthemtoaveryconsiderabledegree,and,to takemoreshametoourselves,wecherishthembecausetheyare prejudices;andthelongertheyhavelasted,andthemoregenerallythey haveprevailed,themorewecherishthem.Weareafraidtoputmento liveandtradeonhisownprivatestockofreason;becausewesuspect thatthisstockineachmanissmall,andthatindividualswoulddo bettertoavailthemselvesofthegeneralbankandcapitalofnations, andofages.14 Witharhetoricalflourish,Burkereversedtheusualassociationsofreason withvirtueandmorality,andprejudicewithnarrowviewsandunethical acts.Rather,Burkeassertedthatprejudicewasreasonableandrendered virtuousactionshabitual: Prejudice,withitsreason,hasamotivetogiveactiontothatreason, andanaffectionwhichwillgiveitpermanence.Prejudiceisofready applicationintheemergency;itpreviouslyengagesthemindina steadycourseofwisdomandvirtue,anddoesnotleavetheman hesitatinginthemomentofdecision,sceptical,puzzled,and unresolved.Prejudicerendersaman'svirtuehishabit.15 Prejudiceinsuredthatanindividualactedaccordingtohis"untaught feelings."Wherereasonurgedhimtoconsiderandreflect,prejudicehelped himtoact.Philosophicaldiscourseviewedreason'simpactuponthewill asonesteptowardmoralreform,butBurkeimpliedthatunaidedreason,ifit ledanywhere,ledtoindecision.Whilethosewhosubscribedtotheprin- ciplesofphilosophicalreformconsideredreason'sinterferencewithanindi- vidual'shabits,prejudices,andfeelingslaudable,Burkearguedthatsuch interferencewaspernicious. FollowingtheRoyalProclamationagainstseditiouswritingsand publicationsinMay1792,whentheincreasingviolenceoftheFrench RevolutionseemedtojustifyBurke'scharacterizationofphilosophicalre- formastheworkofdangerousinnovatorsandintriguers,literaryperiodicals begantoemployhisreasoningtocountersuchreform.Hencein1793,the Gentleman'sMagazineblamedthis"strangeandheterogeneousphilosophy" forhavingcausedtheFrenchRevolutionwithoutofcoursestatingthatthis "strange"philosophywasverysimilartothatwhichithadadvocatedaslate as1790.BecausetheFrenchhadendeavoredtospreadthisenlightened philosophyinEngland,theGentleman'sMagazinewoulddoallitcould"to 284/TENGERandTROLANDER resistandcounteractthesemachinations."Themagazinepromisedto provide"indefatigablesupport"forEngland's"PoliticalandReligious Constitution"anddonothingthatwouldtend"tosubverttheprinciplesof ourGovernment."ButwhilethemagazinewageditswarwithFrench philosophyonthisfront,yet"inallotherrespects,ourPublicationwill continuetoexhibitafieldformanlyandimpartialcriticism."16The messagewasclear.Strictimpartialitywasinconsistentwithpatriotismand mightactuallyhelptofosterthephilosophicalprinciplesthatinspiredthe French Revolution. ConservativepublicationssuchastheBritishCritic,Anti-Jacobinand Satiristweremoreexplicitintheirdenunciationofreformprinciples.Inthe prefacetothefirstvolumeoftheBritishCritic(1793),itseditorsclaimed, muchliketheirpredecessors,thatthemagazinewouldprovide"arepository ofthemostaccurateknowledgethisdistinguishedcountrycanproduce." Butinfulfillingtheirmissiontorepresentandpromotetheprogressof knowledgeinBritain,theeditorsoftheBritishCriticsuggestedthatimpar- tialitywasnotthebestpolicyifitledtopositionsopposing"thefavourite opinionsofourcountrymen."Theywererepresentingnotanimpartial, generalmanbutthe"genuinesentiments"and"feelingsoftrueBritons"who supportedtheirstatereligionand"theunpervertedformoftheirpolitical constitution."17Theeditorsdeniedthatsuchastanceindicatedapartiality foranyonepositionorparty.NoonewholovedBritain,theyimplied, wouldportraytheirsupportofitsinstitutionsandsentimentsasissuing fromaninterestedpointofview. TheAnti-JacobinReview(1798),intheprospectustoitsfirstvolume, wasevenmoreblatantinlinkingthephilosophicalprinciplesoftheother reviewsandtheiravowedattemptsatimpartialityto"FrenchEconomists andotherPhilosophistsofmoderntimes...[who]havefacilitatedthe propagationofprinciples,subversiveofsocialorder,and,consequently, destructiveofsocialhappiness."18TheeditoroftheAnti-JacobinReview, "JohnGifford,"declaredtheMonthly,Critical,andAnalyticalreviews vehiclesfordiffusing"overourcountry,and,circulatingthroughsecret channels,disguisedinvariousways"the"FRENCHPRINCIPLES"which could"ultimatelyunderminethatfabricwhichcanneverbedestroyedbyan openattack."19Theeditorclaimedthattheseliberalpublicationshadbecome "themereinstrumentsoffaction"andtheirreviewers"sinkingthecriticin thepartisan,favourfed]thedesignsofthosewriterswholabourtoundermine ourcivilandreligiousestablishments."20Ironically,while"Gifford" chargedmoreliberalreviewswithprejudice,hedidnotpromiseimpartiality tocombattheirwrongfulpartisanship.HeproudlyproclaimedthattheAnti- Jacobin,too,would"sinkthecriticinthepartisan": Topurityofintentionweboldlyassertourclaim.Buttothechargeof prejudiceandpartialitywepleadguilty—Forwearedeeplyprejudicedin favourofourcountry;andarehighlypartialtoherconstitutionand laws,toherreligionandgovernment.Theseweshalldefendtothe PoliticsofLiteraryProductionI285 utmostofourability.Indeed,theirdefenceisourprincipleinducementforobtrudingourworkuponthepublic.21 TheannouncementechoedthethesisofBurke'sReflections:prejudicewas preferabletoimpartiality.Itwasfarbettertorelyonanddefendnational traditionsandinstitutionslongestablishedthantocreatenewsystemsbased onrationalistpresumptions.22 TenyearslatertheeditorsoftheTory-alignedSatirist,orMonthlyMeteor reiteratedtheconservativerejectionoftheaimsofphilosophicalreform. Theyboastedtheyhadnever"derivedanylightfromthenewschoolof philosophy"andwerenot"convertstotheethicsofFrance."Inaswipeat theprinciplesoftheuniversalameliorationofmankind,theyclaimedthey "weresoold-fashionedastoloveourkindredbetterthanourkind."They proudlyproclaimedthattheyhad"strongpartialities"andclung"stubbornly toourinveterateprejudices."Thosewithoutsuch"prejudices"forthe BritishconstitutionandChurchofEngland"maybe...philosopher^]"but they"cannotbe...patriotfs]."23 Thatattacksonimpartialityinreviewing,especiallyinmattersof philosophyandpolitics,werealsoattacksonthefoundationsofphilosophi- calreformwasnotlostontheeditorsoftheradical/dissenter-aligned AnalyticalReview.Apparentlyavictimoftheviciouspropagandaofthe Anti-JacobinReviewandPitt'sprogramofpoliticalrepressionand censorship,theAnalyticalReviewwasforcedtoceasepublicationin1799. Intheprefacetoitslastvolume,theeditorsdenouncedconservativeclaims thatpartialitiesfortheBritishConstitutionandChurchwerephilosophi- callysound,andinsistedinsteadontheexerciseofimpartialjudgmentin politicalmatters.Theyhadthoughtattheoutsetoftheirundertakingthat the"publicmind"waspreparedtosupporttheir"firmandardentattachment totheabstractinterestsoftruth,"buttheydiscoveredthat"thehuman intellect"was"inthatstateofdegradation,inwhichitsfeeblestruggles... servebuttoirritate,oppression,andtorendermoregallingthefetterswhich itcannotsunder."Philosophicalprinciplescouldnotyetcounteract prejudice.Giventhesecircumstances,theeditorsconcludeditwassenseless tocontinuetheirprojectforreform: Whilsttheonlymodewhichislefttousofinfluencingthesentiments ofmenisbyleadingthemtosacrificeoneprejudiceinfavourof another,andbyengagingtheirpassionsinsupportofprinciplesof whichtheirreasonisnotallowedtheexamination,—whilstweare deniedtoenterintoarationalandfulldiscussionofthesubjectsin whichtheinterestsofmanaremostintimatelyinvolved,andare permittedonlytoguidehimeitherbythemorerefineddelusionsof sophistry,orbythegrosseronesofselfishinterest,—wefeelno hesitationinrenouncingatoncebothexpedients.24 286/TENGERandTROLANDER TheAnalyticalReview'sdemisewascertainlynottheendofadvocacyfor liberalreforminEngland.25Butevenasliteraryperiodicalsespousingsuch principlesemergedafter1796,theywereforcedtoredefinetheireditorial policiesinlightofchargesofJacobinism,disloyalty,andoutrighttreason. Theynolongerassumedthatmosteducatedreaderswouldsubscribeto principlesofuniversalismandimpartialityandwereforcedtousethe languageofresistance,opposition,andretreat.Thenewtonewasevidentin editorialstatementsmadeintherecentlyformedMonthlyMagazine...

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