"Beyond the Limits of a Vulgar Fate": The Renegotiation of Public and Private Concerns in the Careers of Gray and Other Mid-Eighteenth Century Poets

"BeyondtheLimitsofaVulgarFate": TheRenegotiationofPublicandPrivate ConcernsintheCareersofGrayandOther Mid-EighteenthCenturyPoetsWILUAMLEVINE Theessaythatfollowswillargueagainstaprevailinginterpretationofmid- eighteenthcenturypoetrythatemphasizesitsformsofsubjectivityand isolationattheexpenseofconsideringthesocialdeterminantsofits seeminglyprivatepersonae.Further,theargumentwillexplainhowthis movementtowardsprivacyconstitutesalegitimatecriticismofthelimitedprofessionalconditionsandopportunitiesforpublicresponsibilitythat frustratedambitiouslyricpoetsofthe1740s,1750s,and1760s.Inparticu- lar,theessaywilldiscussthreerelatedproblemsthat"poetsofsensibility" confronted:(1)Theurgetoupholdapurifiednotionofhighpoetictradition thatisnotcontaminatedbythedemandsofcommercialpublishing,venal- ity,orpartisanpolitics:theisolated,sensitivepoeticspeakerattemptsto preservehisartisticorethicalintegrityinthefaceofthesecorrupting influences.(2)Thesearchforalegitimate,sociallyresponsivebasisofpoeticpower:forexample,odesaboutthepowersofpoetryortheheroics ofKingDavidreflectadesirefortheconvergenceofaesthetic,moral, political,andcatharticaimsinareformedrepublicofletters;inaddition, suchpoemsidealizeastateofpublicparticipationandcivicresponsibility fortheirwriters,evenastheyassumeanisolatedstancetocriticizepolitical, commercial,andotherforcesthatfragmentthepoet'straditionalsocialpurpose .(3)Thecorrespondenceofpoeticformtosocialfunction:ironically, oneofthemostenduringverseformsofthemid-eighteenthcenturyis Pindaricodethatpointstoalackofpublicoccasionstocelebrateandto doubtaboutthepoet'svocation;conversely,thesolitaryspeakeroflyrics suchasThomasGray'sElegyorChristopherSmart's"SongtoDavid"is abletomakebroad,sociallyredeemingclaimsbydistancinghimselffrom publiclife.Theensuinginterpretationswillestablishnotonlythevalidity 223 224/LEVINE ofthesocialcriticisminsuchlyricalgesturesofisolationbutalsothe poets'efforts,inthecourseoftheircareers,torenegotiatetraditionalpublic genressoastoaccommodatetheirdramatizedsenseofexclusion.Owingto thegreaterextentofbiographicalinformationaboutGray,theessaywill concentrateuponthedilemmasofpublicobligationandprivatemisgivings inhispoeticcareer;totheextentthathisconcernsaretypical,however,ofa broaderdesiretoreformthestatusofpublicverse,thediscussionwillalso includecomparableexamplesfromSmart,WilliamCollins,andJohn "Estimate"Brown. InJuneof1769Grayofferedthefollowingobservationsonacollectionof WilliamShenstone'sletters:"poorMan!hewasalwayswishingformoney, forfame,&otherdistinctions,&hiswholephilosophyconsistedinliving againsthiswillinretirement,&inaplace,wchhistastehadadorn'd;but wchheonlyenjoy'd,whenPeopleofnotecametosee&commendit."1 TheseseeminglyinnocuousremarkssuggestthatGrayisstruckby Shenstone'smisguidedeffortstopromotehislifeandcareer.Shenstone's overadornedcountryestate,theLeasowes,recallsAlexanderPope's Twickenham,aneo-Horatianretreatthatisboththevisiblesignofapoetic careerinretirementaswellasthelocusofretirementpoetry.Gray'scom- mentspointoutthediscrepancybetweentheendsandmeansofpoetic "fame"inonemodelofacareer.Theauthorof"TheSchoolmistress"has imitatedPope'swell-knownpoeticlifestylewithoutreapingtheexpected socialbenefits—forexample,theadmirationofhismorepowerfulneighbor, LordLyttelton,whoscornedShenstone'sattemptstoembellishhis"petty State."AdmittedlyShenstonelackedthecapabilitiesorfinancialsuccessof aPope,andcouldnothavewarrantedasmuchsocialrecognition.Buthis examplereflectstheproblemsattendantuponthelimitedpossibilitiesfora respectablepoeticcareerinthe1740s,1750s,and1760sandthedissatisfac- tionwithconventionalchannelsofauthorshipthatarefairlycommonto aspiringpoetsinthesedecades.If,asJamesRalphdeclaredin1758,neither thebooksellersnorthepressnorpoliticalpartiescouldbetrustedassources ofsupport,thenitisnotsurprisingthatwriterssoughtopenlyunorthodox andseeminglyanachronisticcareers:Shenstone'simpotentruralretirement isonlyanextremecaseofthisseparationfromliteraryLondonandthe conditionsofmoderncommercialauthorship,which,asAlvinKernanhas claimed,Johnsonembodiesanddignifies.2 ThomasGraychoseanotheralternativetocommercialformsof professionalauthorship:retirementatCambridgeasafellow-commoner, andlater,asProfessorofModernHistory,asinecurethatheobtained throughhisconnectionstotheGraftonministry.Grayrarelyleftthe groundsofthecollegeinhisadultlife,andwhenhedid,heshowedlittle interestinsecuringpublicpowerorrecognition.Paradoxically,however, hisElegy(1751)andlaterhisodesearnedhimmorefamethanheever reckonedupon.UnlikeShenstone,whounsuccessfullyadheredtoone modelofapoeticcareer,aformofpublicizedprivacyinhisretirementatthe Mid-EighteenthCenturyPoetsI225 Leasowes,Grayrenouncedmostpublicchannelsofauthoriallife(limiting hisinvolvement,forexample,tooverseeingthepublicationofhis1757 odes)butreluctantlywonhisreputationmainlyonthebasisofonepoem, hisElegy,whichsucceededinprivatizingthepublicroleofthepoet,or utteringuniversaltruthsfromthestandpointofasubjective,personally affectedspeaker.3 Accountsoftheso-called"poetsofsensibility"havetraditionallyempha- sizedthisprivatecharacteroftheirverseandthesocialisolationofpoets likeGraywhoarenot,totakeonestandardofpublicrecognition,partof Johnson'scircle.Aglanceatrecentstudiesrevealssuchlabelsas"literary loneliness,"a"flightfromhistory,"a"literatureofontology,"aninternal- ized"vocationaldoubt."4Anunfortunateteleologyalsohassandwiched mid-eighteenth-centurypoetrybetween,anddevalueditincomparisonto, thepublic,didacticpronouncementsofDrydenorPopeandtheprivateyet expressiveconvictionsofWordsworthorKeats.Untilveryrecently, however,theworkofmid-centurypoetshasnotbeenvigorouslyinterpreted inapublic,political,orculturalcontext.5Admittedly,theodesandhymns ofGray,Smart,andCollinslackthequalitiesof"publiclyrics"like Dryden'sodesforSt.Cecilia'sDay,whichevenGray's"ProgressofPoesy" acknowledgesare"heardnomore."6Gray's1757Pindaricodesareroutinely takenasexercisesinasolitaryfigure'ssublimevisions,prospectsthat recounttheglorifiedhistoryofpoetryforabrighterfuture,ortheextended curseofthesolitaryWelshbarduponaseriesofdebasedpoliticalleaders whoarehostiletothefreeexpressionandmoralpurityofpoetry.Evenin Gray'sowntimes,theseodeswereconsideredobscure,andhecondescendinglyinsertedfootnotesinhis1769editionstoexplainhisobliqueallusions tomythologyandEnglishhistory.Morecautiouscriticalformulations pointout,however,thatthissupposedmovementawayfrompubliclifeis itselfpolitical,asitestablishesarealmofpuritythatturnsthesolitary expressivepoetagainstcorruptpubliccustomsandpractices,evenifthe writer'sparticularstateofaffairsisallegorizedasaneventofpasthistory, mythologized,orprojectedontonature.OnemightrememberWilliam Empson'scommentsonthecasuistryofGray'sElegy:suchtopoiasthe inevitabilityofwastedpotentialaredisingenuous.Whatisperhapsthe Elegy'1Smostmemorablequatrainseemstonaturalizethevillagers'and,by implication,thesensibility-poet'sunfulfilledlives: Fullmanyagemofpurestrayserene Thedarkunfathomedcavesofoceanbear: Fullmanyaflowerisborntoblushunseen Andwasteitssweetnessonthedesertair. (53-56) InEmpson'sview,thisquatraincanbebothanacceptanceofinevitability aswellasanimpliedcritiqueofagovernmentthatdoesnothaveasystem forconferringstatusandrecognitionuponscholarslikeGray.The 226/LEVINE compensationthatcharacterizes"sensibility"istoaestheticize,naturalize, andultimatelypurifythislossofpublicacclaim,muchasoneofGray's contemporarieshadearlierdepictedonanism:"ToshedthyBlossomsthro' thedesertair/AndsowthyperishedOff-springinthewinds."7Inboth cases,anobjectofhumiliationorshameisprojectedontoanatural economythatcaneasilysustainsuchlossesandpreserveitsvirginal membersforhigher,purerduties,whethertheseconsistofdeferringcoitus untilmaturityorforesakingthecorruptionsofpubliclifeandfamewhile maintainingthebondsofhumansympathy. InthissublimemomentoftheElegy,thepoet-speaker'sapparentdisdain offameandsocialempowermentshouldnotpreventonefromseeingthatits recuperationof"wasted"privatepotentialhastangiblepublicimplications. OneofT.W.Adorno'sformulationsontheKantiandynamicalsublime pertainswelltothemid-eighteenth-centuryoppositionalaestheticsof sensibility:"thetruesubstanceoftheideaofsublimity"isto"reverse"any formof"complicitywithdomination,"andthustofosterthe"resistancethat spiritmarshalsagainsttheprepotenceofnature,"wherenatureisfiguredas power.8TropeslikeGray'ssubmergedgemanddesertfloweraremeasures ofthisresistance,becausetheylegitimatealevelofprivateexperiencethat isallthemorepowerfulforitsaversiontopublicchannelsofpower.Yet byoveremphasizingthesubjectivetendenciesoftheselyrics,onelosessight ofthewayspoetssuchasGrayreconfiguretheirsocialposition.Themajor lyricsofthemid-eighteenthcenturyshowastrongdissatisfactionwiththe socialchannelsthenavailabletowriters.Theirtropesofsublimityand sensibilitydemonstrateanawarenessofthediscrepanciesbetweenpublic rolesandprivateexpressionandthesocialconstraintsonthepoet'sability toaddressprivateexperienceandgainanadequatesenseofpublic independence. AlthoughGray'sreclusivelifeseemstojustifythetypicallyahistorical, formalisttreatmentsofhispoetry,hiscorrespondencedemonstrateshow attentivelyheobservedandrespondedtotheliteraryclimateofhistime.As hisallusiontoShenstone'sestateindicates,Grayisespeciallyalertto contradictionsbetweenthepublicformsofliteraryexpressionandtheir debasedormeaninglesscontent.CommentinguponCibber'sbiographyof Ciceroina1747lettertoHoraceWalpole,Grayrecognizesthatthesaleof suchworksdependsonstyle—particularlyadegenerate,meretriciousversion of"sensibility"—ratherthansubstance:heasks,forexample,whetherthe commendatoryversesintheprefacewerereallywrittenbythedesignated author,Mrs.LaetitiaPilkington,orwhether"somebody[has]putonthe StyleofascribbleingWoman'sPanegyrictodeceive&laughatColley" (1:264).Despitetheapparentmisogynyofthisremark,Gray'scriticism doesnotassumeanidealofmalesuperiority,butratherimaginesavirginalpostureofsensibilityforhimself(albeitlatchedontoaPopeanstandardof satire,whichmaintainsthecontinuityofCibberasabuttofridiculeand upholdsitsforceasthepreserveofmalerationaljudgment).Thevirginal Mid-EighteenthCenturyPoetsI227 manofsensibility,inaderisivesatiricalpersona,criticizestheprostituted "market"versioninCibber.9CibberandMrs.Pilkingtonarecommodities valuedmoreforthetypesofproducttheysignify(respectively,"flirty Saucy"observationsonCiceroand"scribbleingWomen'spanegyric" [1:264])thanfortheirtrueselves;anyonecouldassumethenameortypeof theirwriting.Evenifsuchdebasedwritersweretochanceupon"Reason& Truth,"Grayclaims,thedegradationsofpopularstylewouldobscureany potentiallydidacticeffects.Thepersonified"ReasonandTruth,"eachgiven dual,mirror-likestatusasreaderandtext,wouldnot"knowtheirownFaces" ifthey"sawthemselvessobedizen'dintatter'dFringe&tarnish'dLace,in FrenchJewels,&dirtyFurbelows,theFripperyofaStroller'sWardrobe" (1:264-65).CibberservesGray'ssatiricalpurposeswellbecausehis personaconflatestawdrytheatricalitywithpopularliterarystyle.ButGray's criticismofmarketconditionsforwritersencompasseslargertargetsthan justtheKingoftheDunces:"Littérature[sic]...[taken]initsmost comprehensiveSense,&including]everyThing,thatrequiresInvention,or Judgement,orbarelyApplication&Industry,seemsindeeddrawingapaceto itsDissolution;&remarkablysincetheBeginningoftheWar[ofAustrian Succession]"(1:265). Gray'ssatiricalsalliesmaskanearnestcriticismofanartificially produced,de-personalizednetworkofpublicwriting,inwhichthegaudy appearanceandbroadproductionofliteratureoutweighsuchconcernsasthe endurance,quality,orindividualbasisofaseriouswork.Gray'sownsmall quantityofverseisanattempttorestore"Littérature"toitsprelapsarian state.Oftendifficult,individualistic,andsporadicallyproduced,hisodesare waysofcombattingthedegenerativetendenciesGrayhasrecognizedin Cibber.Theodes'consciouslyallusivestyle,tentativemoralassertions, andcultivationoffeeling(or"redeemedsensibility")asamanifestationof identityareeffortstomakethestyleofaworkspeaktheauthenticvoiceof thesociallymarginalpoet. Gray'sstyledeviatesfromthecommerciallysuccessfulwritingofhis time,butevenmorestrikingishisremotenessfromtheconventionalforms ofliterarycareersandhisdisdainforwritingasaprofession.Unlike Johnson,whoaccusedGrayofrelyingupon"puerilitiesofobsolete mythology,"10orevenShenstone,Graydidlittletogainprofessional recognition.TheElegywasthemostpopularpoemofmid-century,but Grayhadnodesiretoprofitfromthissuccess,seemingtoreverttoa Renaissanceideaofliteratureasagentleman'sprofession.Gray'spublisher, RobertDodsley,earned£1000fromtheElegyanddidnotreturnthe copyrighttoGray,denyingacommoncourtesyofthetime.ThePindarics sold1200-1300copiesintheirfirstmonth.Grayreceivedallof£40for these;hisonlyapparentgratificationwastouseWalpole'spressat Strawberry-Hillforthefirstprintingoftheodesandthus"snatch...them outofDodsley'shands,"thoughthepublisherstillhadthecopyright (CorrespondenceofGray,2:512-13n.1;2:513n.4).Characteristically 228/LEVINE insistingonthedisparitybetweenearningareputationthroughthemarket placeandearningitthroughthequalityofliterarywork,Graycomments(in a1746lettertoDr.ThomasWharton,oneofhisfriendsfromCambridge): "ItisafoolishThing,thatonecan'tonlynotliveasonepleases,butwhere &withwhomonepleases,withoutMoney.Swiftsomewheresays,that MoneyisLiberty;&IfearmoneyisFriendshiptoo&Society,&almost everyexternalBlessing,it[sic]isagreattho'ill-natured,Comforttosee mostofthese,whohaveitinPlenty,withoutPleasure,withoutLiberty,& withoutFriends"(1:255). Scorning"TheGreat"inthenameofindividualLibertytypifiesaWhig poeticscommontothetimeandisconsonantwithGray'spersonalsenseof authorialfreedomfrompublishers,patrons,andpoliticians.11Buthis apparentdisdainofliterarypoliticsandtheactivepublicinvolvementsuch professionalismtypicallyentaileddidnotprecludeasociallyresponsible stance—howeverdiffused,distanced,ordisplaced—onthepartofGrayor like-mindedfriends,admirers,andwritersoutsidetheLondonliterary community.Andperhapstheirmutualoppositiontotheestablishedliterary marketandtastesprovidesabasisforthe"lyricrevival"thatgrewinmid- century.DonaldDavieobservesthatthemostsignificantliteratureofthe periodwasdidacticandoften"outofsympathy"withthedominantWhig currentsofeighteenth-centuryEnglishsocietywhichemphasized"social mobility,""territorialandcommercialexpansion,"and"conspicuous consumption."Davieassertstheimportance,however,ofanAugustanlyric traditionthatneverdesertedtheseso-called"progressive"tendencies.Butit isimportanttonotethateventhepoemsaffiliatedwith"progress"didmuch topurifyandidealizetheindividualisticoraggressiveforcesthey celebrated—therebyunderscoringthecomplexityofeighteenth-century Whiggery.12Moreover,whilesuchlyricgenresassongs,hymns,and balladscanbereadilyassimilatedintoDavie'sthesis,extended,dialectical lyricformspresentamorecomplicatedstancetowardsthemaincurrentsof theage.AcaseinpointisChristopherSmart'selaboratedevotiononthe LordandHisgreatestPsalmist."ASongtoDavid"isneithersimply celebratorynorplainlydidactic.Howevermuchhisversedisplaysaunique concernforpraisingGod'screations,Smartabsorbedqualitiesofboththe "expansive"lyricismofhistimeandthe"normative"literarymodesthat satirizedaggressiveindividualism.Asbotharecorderofsacredhistoryand theobserveroffestivals,Davidmust"keepthedaysonZion'smount"(10); hepraysforallofGod'swork...