The Cognitive Value of Confusion and Obscurity in the German Enlightenment: Leibniz, Baumgarten, and Herder

TheCognitiveValueofConfusionand ObscurityintheGermanEnlightenment: Leibniz,Baumgarten,andHerder JEFFREYBARNOUWTheCartesianidentificationofrationalthoughtwithknowledgegroundedin clearanddistinct'ideas'(representationsinandtothemind)atfirstcasta shadowofopprobriumonobscureandconfusedrepresentations,1but eventuallyitprovokedareactionwhichbroughtlightanddefinitiontodark andindistinctmentalphenomenaandpowers.Thesemakeupbyfarthe greaterpartnotonlyofourmentalactivitybutofourthinking.Two principalimpulsesofthisreactionwereLeibniz'sreconceivingtheintrinsic confusionofsensationandBaumgarten'suseofthisinnovativeconception asthebasisofanewscienceandart,aesthetics.Thepurposeofthis disciplinewasoriginally"perfectingsensuouscognitionassuch,"2thatis, asconfused. Aestheticswouldthereforenotseektoimprovesensuousideasby renderingthemlessconfused,letalonemakingthemdistinct(whichwould underminetheirveryconstitution),butrathertodiscoverwhatthevirtuesof confusionitselfwereandseethattheywereexercisedandappreciated.In earlieressaysIhaveelucidatedsomeadvantagesoftheinherentconfusionof sensationasrecognizedbyLeibnizandBaumgarten3anddiscernedagrudgingandback-handedacknowledgementofanalogousvirtuesofpassion as'confused'perceptionorthoughtonthepartofDescartes,Malebranche, andHutcheson.4 Mightasimilarcasebemadeforrepresentationsthatdonotattain clarity,namely,thattheirobscurityisnotadeficiencybuthascognitive value?TherearemanypassagesinHerder'swritingswhere'dark'or'obscure ideas'takeonaparticularpowerandresonance.Isthispartofanirrationalist reactionagainstEnlightenmentepistemology?Iwillargue,onthecontrary, thatHerder'spositiveevaluationoftheobscurecarriesforwardamaintheme 29 30/BARNOUW ofLeibniz'sinsightintothevirtuesofconfusedideas.First,however,an analysisoftheLeibnizianconceptionofsensationasconfusedwill illuminateBaumgarten'sintentioninfoundingaesthetics. LeibnizonConfusedIdeas Inthefirstpublishedphilosophicalpaperreflectinghismature philosophy,LeibnizbeganbyimprovingonDescartes'characterizationof "thedifferentkindsandthecriteriaofideas." Knowledgeisclear,therefore,whenitmakesitpossibleformeto recognizethethingrepresented.Clearknowledge,inturn,iseither confusedordistinct.ItisconfusedwhenIcannotenumerateonebyone themarks[notas]whicharesufficienttodistinguishthethingfrom others,eventhoughthethingmayintruthhavesuchmarksand constituentsintowhichitsconcept[notio]canberesolved.Thuswe knowcolors,odors,flavors,andotherparticularobjectsofthesenses clearlyenoughanddiscernthemfromeachotherbutonlybythesimple evidenceofthesensesandnotbymarksthatcanbestated.5 Confusedknowledgetakesideassimplyastheyaregiven,asunanalyzed wholeswhichmayincludemanyundifferentiatedelementsfusedtogether. WhenLeibnizrepeatedthisexplanationtwoyearslater,headded,"Inthis waywesometimesknowclearly,...ifapoemorapictureiswelldoneor badly,becauseithasacertain'something,Iknownotwhat'whicheither satisfiesorrepelsus.ButwhenIcanexplain[expliquer,perhapsbetter rendered'makeexplicit']themarksIhave,myknowledgeiscalled distinct."6 Thejenesaisquoioffersananalogyfortheconfusednatureofsensation. Wecannotexplaintoablindmanwhatredis;ithastobeexperienced.But the'idea'ofredisnotthereforelogicallysimple. Theconceptsofthesequalitiesarecompositeandcanberesolved,for theycertainlyhavetheircauses.Likewisewesometimesseepainters andotherartistscorrectlyjudgewhathasbeendonewellordonebadly; yettheyareoftenunabletogiveareasonfortheirjudgmentbuttellthe inquirerthattheworkwhichdispleasesthemlacks"something,Iknow not what."7 Thecompositenatureofcolorisa'con-fusion'constitutingsensationin awaysimilartotheunformulatedjudgmentsonwhichartisticcreationand appreciationrely.Yettheconstitutionofcolorobviouslydependsonthe constitutionofhumansensibility.InNouveauxEssaissurl'Entendement Humain,Philalèthe,whostandsforandquotesfromLocke,says"Ifour senseswereacuteenough,sensiblequalitiessuchas'theyellowcolorof gold,wouldthendisappear,andinsteadofitweshouldseeanadmirable textureofparts.'"Théophile,speakingforLeibniz,answersthat"thecolor Leibniz,Baumgarten,andHerder/31 yellowisareality,allthesame,liketherainbow,"andthat"ifoureyes becamebetterequippedormorepenetrating,sothatsomecolorsorother qualitiesdisappearedfromourview,otherswouldapparently[thatis, appearingly]ariseoutofthem."8Byextensionthecondensationimpliedin con-fusedrepresentationcanoccuratvariouslevels,andthewholeswegrasp assimple,byignoringorbeingignorantoftheircomposition,havetheir ownrealityandvalidity. ForLeibniz,sensationisperceptionaccompaniedbyawareness:"Notall perceptionissensation,but...thereisalsoinsensibleperception.For example,Icouldnothavethesensationof[sentire]greenunlessIperceived theblueandyellowfromwhichitresults.AtthesametimeIdonothave thesensationofblueandyellow,unlessamicroscopeisused."9Inthe NouveauxEssaisthisisputintermsoftheideaofgreenbeingcomposedof theideasofblueandofyellow,butthepointis,onceagain,thattheideaof greenappearsassimpleasthatofblue,sothelattermustalsobe"regarded assimpleonlyinappearance."10Itisevidentthatthisconceptionof sensationasconstitutivelyconfusedisintimatelyconnectedwithLeibniz's seminalideaof"minuteperceptions"whichwebecomeawareoforsense onlyinacumulativeaggregate. Leibnizholdsthatconfusedknowledgeisopposedtodistinctonlyasa relativedifferentiationwithinacontinuum.Distinct"istheknowledgeofan assayerwhodiscernsthetruegoldfromthefalsebymeansofcertaintestsor markswhichmakeupthedefinitionofgold.Butdistinctknowledgehas degrees,becauseordinarilytheconceptionswhichenterintothedefinitions willthemselvesbeinneedofdefinition,andareonlyknownconfusedly."11 Noconceptiseverwhollyfreeofaresidualconfusionfromitssensuous origin. Aniceexpressionoftheadvantagepresentedbytheholismorcon-fusion ofsenseisLeibniz'sanswertoBayle'scriticismofhis"systemofpre- establishedharmony"inwhichLeibnizusestheanalogyofreadinga musicalscoreandperceivingthemelody.Baylearguesthatthesoulmust recognizethesequenceofnotesandthusperceivethemindividually. Leibnizanswers,"itsufficesthatthesoulhasincludedtheminitsconfused thoughtsinthesamewaythatithasathousandthingsinitsmemory withoutthinkingofthemdistinctly."12Whatissensedorconsciouslyper- ceivedisthemelody;ifweattendtotheindividualnotes,welosethemel- ody,thesenseofthewhole. ThecontextofthisexampleisavindicationofLeibniz'sideathat"the presentispregnantwiththefuture"onthegroundsthatourthoughtsare neversimpleandthemindisaccordinglyledfromonetothenext.Itis "presentperceptions,alongwiththeirregulatedtendencytochangein conformitytowhatisoutside,whichformthemusicalscorewhichthesoul reads."Thisfineanalogyforperceptionasanongoingprocessimpliesthat any(artificallyisolated)sensation,whateveritsapparentimmediacy,willbe thecumulativeresultofinnumerableinfinitessimalcontributionsfrompast 32/BARNOUW perceptions.Memoryisarticulated,belowthereachoflanguage,byfine networksofassocition.Theconfusionofsenseisatokenofitscontinuity withpastandfuture;whatispresentinsensationhasadepthorpenumbra thathasaccruedtoitthroughassociations. InthisconnectionLeibnizgrants"spontaneitytoconfusedand involuntarythoughts,"whilerecognizinghowdirectlythisdiffersfromthe traditionalview,"thereisspontaneityintheconfusedaswellasthedistinct. Inanothersense,however,wearejustifiedinspeaking,asdidtheancients, ofthatwhichconsistsofconfusedthoughts,wherethereisanelementof theinvoluntaryandunknown,asperturbationsorpassions."Ontheone hand,'confusedthoughts',takenasincludingsensequalities,constitute wholeswhichareaestheticallyorpracticallyadvantageouseventhough(or perhapsbecause)theydonotenableorevenallowustoknowwhattheyare composedof.Theyaffordakindofspontaneityorfacilitationtohuman action.Ontheotherhand,'confusedthoughts'arecloudedbypassion whichrestrictsfreedom.LeibnizevokesaPlatonicChristianversionofthis:"Ourconfusedthoughtsrepresentthebodyorthefleshandconstitute ourimperfection."13 InanothercontextLeibnizexplicitlyqualifiestheCartesianand Malebranchianviewthat: confusedthoughtsmarkourimperfection,passions,anddependenceon amassofexternalthingsormatter,whiletheperfection,force,empire, libertyandactionofthesoulconsistprincipallyinourdistinct thoughts.Howeveritdoesnotceasetobetruethatatbottomconfused thoughtsarenothingelsethanamultitudeofthoughtswhicharein themselveslikethedistinct,butwhicharesosmallthateach separatelydoesnotexciteourattentionandcauseitselftobe distinguished.Wecanevensaythatthereisallatonceavirtually infinitenumberofthemcontainedinoursensations.Itisinthisthat thegreatdifferencebetweenconfusedanddistinctthoughtsreally Thisappraisalrevealsadvantagesforhumanpracticeintheconfused characterofsensuousideas,evenwhereitstemsfromtheirrelationto appetitesandpassions.Leibniz'sconceptionof'minuteperceptions'serves toshowhowrestrictedandrestrictivetheexclusiveCartesianfocusonclear anddistinctideasis: Ateverymomentthereisinusaninfinityofperceptions, unaccompaniedbyawarenessorreflection;thatis,ofalterationsinthe soulitself,ofwhichweareunawarebecausetheseimpressionsare eithertoominuteandtoonumerous,orelsetoounited,sothattheyare notsufficientlydistinctiveontheirown.Butwhentheyarecombined withotherstheydoneverthelesshavetheireffectandmakethemselves felt,atleastconfusedly,withinthewhole.15 Leibniz,Baumgarten,andHerderI33 Everysensationisa"assemblageconfus,"emerginginconsciousness."By virtueoftheseminuteperceptionsthepresentisbigwiththefutureand burdened[chargé]withthepast."16 Theindistinctnessofsensationcreatesrelativewholesthatcanbedealt withfarmoreeasilyinpracticallifethantheconstituentelementstaken singly.Leibniz'sconceptionofthedevelopmentofcharacterandmotivation suggeststhat,takenstrictly,noactioniscompletelyvoluntary(informed solelybydistinctideas),norwoulditbeareasonableideal."Allour undeliberatedactionsresultfromaconjunctionofminuteperceptions;and evenourcustomsandpassions,whichhavesomuchinfluencewhenwedo deliberate,comefromthesamesource;forthesetendenciescomeintobeing gradually,andsowithouttheminuteperceptionswewouldnothave acquiredthesenoticeabledispositions.17 Afinalillustrationofthewayinwhichsensationswhichseem immediateareactuallytheresultofcompoundingmanyothersthatwere registeredwithoutbeingdirectlynoticedisthecontrastthatLeibnizdraws betweentwokindsofjudgment—adistinctionthatissimilartoKant'slater oppositionoflogicalandaestheticjudgment.18 Amathematicianmayhavepreciseknowledgeofthenatureofnine-and ten-sidedfigures,becausehehasthemeansforconstructingthem,yet notbeabletotellonefromtheotheronsight.Thefactisthatalaborer oranengineer,perhapsknowinglittleenoughofthenatureofthe figures,mayhaveanadvantageoveragreatgeometricianinbeingable totellthemapartjustbylookingandwithoutcounting;justasthere areportersandpedlarswhowillsaywhattheirloadsweigh,towithina pound—theworld'sablestexpertinstaticscouldnotdoaswell.Itis truethatthisempiric'skindofknowledge,gainedthroughlong practice,cangreatlyfacilitateswiftactionsuchastheengineeroften needsinemergencieswhereanydelaywouldputhimindanger.Still, thisclearimagethatonemayhaveofaregularten-sidedfigureorofa 99-poundweight—thisaccuratesensethatonemayhaveofthem— consistsmerelyinaconfusedidea.19 Suchasenseofthewholeworks,inLeibniz'sview,inmuchthesameway sensationitselfdoes.Thesamereadinessofresponsecomeswithsensation, notbecausesensationissomethingimmediate,instinctual,but,onthe contrary,becausesensationimperceptibly—likeanempiric'sknowing— drawsonadistillationofpastexperienceintheformofmyriadminute perceptions.Thisisaninsightintosensationwhichisdevelopedby Baumgartenundertheheadingofconfusedideasandtakenfurther,undera differentdescription,byHerder. BaumgartenonConfusedIdeas Inhis1735dissertationBaumgartenheldthatpoetryrepresenteda sensuousknowledgecomplementarytotherationalmodeexemplifiedby 34/BARNOUW philosophy,andheidentifiedsensuousideaswithconfusedones,alludingto ChristianWolff'susageasaprecedent:"sinceanappetitewhichfollows fromaconfusedrepresentationofthegood[thatis,itsobject]iscalled sensuous,andaconfusedrepresentationisgainedthroughthelowerpartof thecognitivefacultyjustasanobscureoneis,onecanapplythesameterm totherepresentations."20Wolffhaddividedthecognitivefacultyintoupper andlowerparts,grantingsensuousknowledgeacertainstatus.Baumgarten enhanceditsworthbyarguingthatonlyconfusedideascouldbepoetic. FollowingLeibniz'sdefinitions,Baumgartenheldthatbecauseobscure ideasdonotcontainsufficientmarksoridentifyingfeaturestoallowusto recognizetheirobjectsandtodistinguishthemfromothers,clearrepre- sentationsaremorepoeticthanobscureones.Conversely,however,distinct onesarenotsensuousandthusnotatallpoetic.21Thedissertation,focusingonexpressivemorethanepistemologicalvaluebutstillaffirming thatpoetryisaformofknowledge,foundadvantagesinconfusedbutnotin obscureideas.Baumgartencalledforanewscience"whichmightdirectthe lowercognitivefacultyinknowingthingssensuously,"justaslogicguides rationalcognition.ReferringtoaclassicalGreekoppositionbetween aistheta(thingsperceived)andnoeta(thingsknown)andidentifyingthe latterwiththeobjectoflogic,hedubbedthenewscience"aesthetica,"the disciplineofaisthesisorsensuousknowledge,includingsenseperception andsensuousimagination.22 InlaterlecturesonaestheticsBaumgartenclaimedtofindthenotionof confusionintheGreekrootofhisterm:"InPlatoaisthetaareopposedto noetoisasindistincttodistinctrepresentations....Astheymadelogike, thescienceofthedistinct,fromlogikos,thedistinct,sofromaisthetoswe makeaisthetike,thescienceofallthatissensuous."23Therewasprecedent fortheseideasinPlato.Baumgartenmaywellhavebeenthinkingof Republic523-25,concerningtheknowledgewhichleadsthephilosopherup outofbecomingandtowardbeingandrationality.Socratesdistinguishes betweenthecasesinwhichperceptiondoesnotleadtothoughtbecausewe aresatisfiedwiththe"judgmentofthesenses,"andothersinwhichsense perceptiongivesconflictingreportsthatcallforreflectionandreasoningin theformofcalculation.Aisthesis,senseperception,candiscriminate relativelybetweenbiggerandsmaller,softerandharder;butnothingis essentiallybigorsmall,softorhard,andthesameobjectisbigorsmall, softorhard,dependingonthecontext.Sightperceiveslargeandsmall"not separatedbutconfused[sungkechumenori],"andintellectisthereforeforced todistinguishbigfromsmallandviewthemasdistinctfromoneanother. Thisisthepoint,Socratessays,atwhichwefirstaskwhatthebigandthe smallare(essentiallyorbydefinition)andareledtodistinguishthe intelligble(noeton)fromthevisible,acrucialstepintheprogresstoward beingandtruthandrationality. Aristotlealsocharacterizeswhatisknownbyaisthesisasbeing confused,butheislessdismissiveofitthanPlato.Thebeginningofthe Leibniz,Baumgarten,andHerderI35 Physicsdefinesscientificknowledgeasknowledgeoftheprinciples,causes, orelementsofthematterinquestion,butaddsthatacquisitionofsuch knowledgecannotstartfromthese.Wemuststartfromthingsthatare clearertous,thoughtheyareconfused(sungkechumena)andlessclearin theirownnature,andprogressbygradualstepstowhatisintrinsicallymore knowable.Thewholeisbestknowntosenseperceptionbutcontainsmany elementswhichmustremainundifferentiatedforsense.Itisonlythrough analysisofwhatiscompoundedorconfused,thoughtakenatfirstasa whole,thatwecometoknowitthroughitsconstituentfactors.24Itisthis senseofconfusionparticularlythatLeibnizdevelopedfurther. BaumgartenreferredtoaestheticainhisMetaphysicaof1739asthe scienceofsensuouslyknowingandpresentingwhatoneknows(sensitive cognoscendietproponendi).TheLeibnizianbackgroundofthiswasevident where"repraesentationondistincta"wascalledsensitiva,and"confused thinking"(confusecogito)definedasthatinwhichonedoesnotdistinguish themarks(notas)oftheobjectofthought.25Baumgartendoesnotdirectly addressthequestion,norovertlyusetheanalogyorexampleoftheconfused constitutionofsenseitself,althoughitiscontainedintheverydefinitionhe givesaesthetics,insofaras'sensuous'isequatedwith'confused'.Stillhe affirmsinageneralway,thatanideamaybelively,rich,andfruitfulin proportiontoitsconfusion.Thekindofadvantagehewilldrawfromthe 'confusion'ofsensuousideasisshownin§517ofMetaphysica:"Themore marksaperceptioncontains,thestrongeritis,"and"aconfusedperception whichincludesmorethanadistinctoneisstrongerthanit"andisthus called'pregnant'.26 Baumgartenansweredhisowncallforthenewsciencein1750withthe firstvolumeofhisAesthetica.Initsfirstparagraphhedefinedaestheticsas "thescienceofsensitivecognition,"andas"thetheoryoftheliberalarts, low-levelepistemology[gnoseologiainferior],theartoffinethinking[ars pulchrecogitandi]andtheartofthe'analogueofreason'."27Thislastex- pressionwasfirstusedbyChristianWolfftodesignatethereason-like capacityinanimals(andhumanbeings)whichLeibnizcharacterizedas"a kindofinference[consecution]whichimitatesreason"byanticipatingthe recurrenceofsimilarcasesfrompastassociationsofideas.28 LeibnizcomparesthismodeofinferencetothatofEmpiricistphysicians (presumablyintheHellenisticmethodologicaldebates)andremarks,"in threequartersofouractionswearebutempiricists."29Likethese Empiricists,Hobbeshadanalyzedthiscapacityintermsofnaturalsigns, showingthatthe"successionofconceptionsinthemind...