Presidential Address: Did Minnesota Have an Eighteenth Century And If So, When?

Presidential Address: DidMinnesotaHavean EighteenthCentury And IfSo, When? PAULALKON UuringtheyearsthatItaughtatMinnesotathewintersmadeadeep impression.IoftenrecalledandatlastunderstoodJackLondon'spower- fulstory"ToBuildaFire."AnnuallyIwrotetotheEnglishdepartment chairmanattheUniversityofHawaiiaskingwhetheranyonethere wantedtochangeplaceswithme,preferablyduringwinterquarter,to useMinnesota'sexcellentlibrarywhileIwenttoHonolulutofindwhatI neededformyownresearch.Nooneeverdid,althoughremarkably politeanswersarrivedeachyearconveyingthebadnews.Aswinters passedindaydreamsofWaikikiBeachandwithanxiousattentiontothe healthofmyfurnaceandcarheater,Ioftenmarveledthatpeoplehad survivedinsuchaclimatebeforethemachineage.Ofcourseasaloyal memberoftheAmericanSocietyforEighteenth-CenturyStudiesIespe- ciallywonderedwhatitwasliketoliveinMinnesotaduringtheeigh- teenthcentury.ButIneverpursuedthisquestion. FinallyIhaveanidealoccasionfordescribinglifeinMinnesotainthe eighteenthcentury.Unfortunatelythereisanembarrassingontological obstacle:duringwhatwecalltheeighteenthcenturytherewas,afterall, nosuchentityas"Minnesota."AndifMinnesotadidnotexistinthe eighteenthcentury,itishardlypossibletoaddressyouonwhatlifewas liketherethen.Otherontologicalobstaclesareequallydaunting. AlthoughonemayprojectthepresentbordersofMinnesotaback 267 268 / ALKON throughallpasttimetodefinewhatwemeanby"there,"andthushope toescapethedisappointmentoffindingasGertrudeSteindidofOaklandthattherewasno "there"there,itisnotsoeasytodelineateforlife withinthoseimaginaryboundariesastableeighteenthcentury. Doesoneresortwithourmorelatitudinariancolleaguestothe"long eighteenthcentury"definedastheintervalfrom1660to1837oreven 1850?Thisisnowbecomingafavoriteparameterforeighteenth-century studies,adoptedforexampleinexcellentrecentbooksbyRoyPorterand DianneDugaw.1DoesonefollowthemiddlewaychosenbyJ.H.Plumb forabookentitledEnglandintheEighteenthCentury(1714-1815)1Or doesoneadherewiththestrictconstructioniststoaneighteenthcentury definedlessimperialisticallyasmerelytheintervalfrom1700to1800?If so,dowemeasurebytheoldstyleJuliancalendarorthenewstyle GregoriancalendarthatwasnotadoptedinGreatBritainanditsAmeri- cancoloniesuntil1752?2Usuallythelatter,butallofthesemeasures appliedtoAmericaimposeaEurocentricdefinitionoferaupona diverslypopulatedregionwhosenativeinhabitantshadnosuchmeasure oftime.Itthereforeappearsalarminglypossiblethat,atleastinan absolutesense,therewasforMinnesotanothen,there. Moreover,ifwesetasideethnocentricanachronisticconceptsofspace, theideaofastable,clearlydelineated"there"alsodisintegrates.Bounda- riesproliferated,shifted,andoverlappedaccordingtowhentheywere seenandwhosawthem."Minnesotaintheeighteenthcentury"isthus evenmoreproblematicthanOaklandinGertrudeStein'sday:therewas notherethere,andtherewasnothenthen.Ittakesnodeconstructionist toseethesedifficulties.Surelyyousympathizewithmydilemma.Itis impossibletoaddressyoutodayonthebestofallpossibletopics:lifein Minnesotaintheeighteenthcentury.Whattodo? I Whenindoubtoneshouldturntotheavailableevidence.Inthiscase thelocusclassicusisJonathanCarver'sTravelsThroughtheInterior PartsofNorthAmericaintheYears1766,1767,and1768.Thefirstpart recountshisjourneyfromFortMichilimackinactotheFallsofSt. AnthonyinquestoftheelusiveNorthwestPassage.Thesecondpartisa descriptionoflocalplantsandanimalstogetherwithalongsectionenti- tled"OftheOrigin,Manners,Customs,ReligionandLanguageofthe Indians." Illustrationsincludewhatmightanachronisticallybecalledthefirst pictureofMinneapolis:aplateentitled"TheFallsofSt.Anthonyinthe Eighteenth-CenturyMinnesota? / 269 Figure1."TheFallsofSt.Anthony,"JonathanCarver,TravelsThroughtheInteriorParts ojNorthAmerica(London,1778). RiverMississippi,near2400MilesfromitsentranceintotheGulfof Mexico"(FigureI).3Thistitlespecifiesthescene'senormousexoticdis- tancefromallEuropeanandevenmostNorthAmericanreaderswhile neverthelessgivingthewaterfallanamethatappropriatesitfortheir cultureifnotfortheircountry.InthetextCarverdescribeswithadmira- tionthepietyof"ayoungprinceoftheWinnebagoIndians"whoset asideotherplansandeagerlyaccompaniedtheexpeditiontoSt. Anthony'sFalls,ofwhichhehadoftenheardfromhischiefs,forthe purposeofperformingthereelaboratereligiousceremonieshonoringthe GreatSpirit.ButwhethertheIndianseverhadtheirownnameforsuch evidentlyholygroundCarverdoesnotsay,reportingonlythatthefalls hadbeennamedinthe1680sbyFatherHennepin(66-69). Dramaticemphasisonthefallingandfoamingwaterisaniceinstance ofwhatBarbaraStaffordhasshowntobeaNewtonian"propensityof eighteenth-centurytravellersforinterpretingthefumeofwaterfallsas barelyvisibleyetacutelysensiblesignsofmatter'sphysicalpowers."4 Dynamismofthewaterisechoedandreinforcedbyremarkablylarge birdsinflightagainstavastbackgroundofcloudysky.Allthismove- mentisfurtheremphasizedbycontrastwiththestasisofsurrounding fieldsandheavilywoodedislands.TwoIndianscarryingacanoeinthe 270 / ALKΟN Figure2.Peacepipe,dagger,and"TheAntientTomahawk,"JonathanCarver,Travels ThroughtheInteriorPartsofNorthAmerica(London,1778). rightforegroundserveprimarilytoestablishscale.Othercanoesabove thefallsaswellasawholevillageoftepeesinthefardistancealso dwindletoinsignificancebycomparisonwiththeirsublimesetting.The nativesandtheirartifactsareincludedheremainlytoenhancetheexotic appealofwhatthebook'sindexdescribesasa"picturesqueview." OtherillustrationsconcentratemoreonIndianlife.Takenoutofcon- texttofloatinabstractspaceareapeacepipe,anold-modelstone dagger,and"TheAntientTomahawk"(figure2)."AManandWomanof theOttigaumies"areshowntogetherwithachildagainstabackground offields,curiouslyproportionedtrees,andahut(figure3).Theancient tomahawkhasgivenwayheretothewarrior'smusketandhatchetwhich implycontactandtradewithEuropeansettlers."AMan&Womanofthe Naudowessie"areshownwiththeirchildagainstabackgroundoftrees, fields,tepees,andindistinctfiguresofothervillagerspassingthetepeeat farright(figure4).Thiswarrior'sbowandarrowsimplythescene's greaterremotenessfromEuropeanculture.Carver'stextdoesnotmentionthat "Naudowessie"isaChippewatermmeaningroughly"snakein thegrass."ItwasgivenbytheChippewatotheirenemiestheDakota, pickedupbytheFrench,andgivenwidestcurrencyinthepluralized francophoneform"Sioux"asaconvenientthoughalienatedandalienat- ingwayofdescribingvariousDakotatribesthatinCarver'slifetimewere beingdrivenawayfromtheGreatLakesregionbytheChippewabutwho eventuallygaveabetteraccountofthemselvesagainstanotherenemyat Eighteenth-CenturyMinnesota? / 271 Figure3."AManandWomanoftheOttigaumies,"JonathanCarver,TravelsThroughthe InteriorPartsofNorthAmerica(London,1778). Figure4."AManandWomanoftheNaudowessie,"JonathanCarver,TravelsThroughthe InteriorPartsofNorthAmerica(London,1778). 272 / ALKΟN LittleBigHorn.5ThispoliticaldevelopmentwasbeyondCarver'scapac- itytodescribe,requiringasitdoesforcomprehensionmoreknowledge thanhehadorwantedtohaveofIndianhistoryandalsorequiringa twentieth-centuryvantage-pointallowingdefinitionofwhatmightbe calledaverylongeighteenthcentury. ColorizedversionsoftheIndianpictures,thoughnotofSt.Anthony's Falls,appearedinthe1781editionofCarver'sTravels.Thepeacepipe, dagger,andtomahawkprimarilygaininverisimilitudebythistransfor- mation.Forthefamilyscenesthecolorizerleavesbackgrounds untouchedtoconcentrateuponhumanfigures,whosecostumesbecome morestrikinglyexoticthanintheuncoloredversions,andwhosemore conspicuouslydarkskinmusthavecreatedformostreadersasenseof evengreaterculturaldistancebetweenthemselvesandtheIndianlife depictedinCarver'sbook. ThesepicturesandotherstowhichIwillsoonturnenjoyedverywide circulation.FirstpublishedinLondonin1778(newstyle),Carver's7>avelsgainedimmediatepopularityandlastingfameasthemostappealing earlyaccountoftheregionincludingwhatisnowcalledMinnesota.By 1800(newstyle)nolessthantwelveeditionsinEnglishweresupple- mentedbyFrench,Dutch,andGermantranslationsaswellasawidely distributedGermanabridgmentdesignedforyoungreaders.Swedishand GreektranslationsfollowedalongwithmanymoreeditionsinEnglish.6 Herethen,wemayhope,issolidground:anundeniablyeighteenth- centuryartifactwellknownduringtheperiod,representativeofthe period,andembellishedwithpicturesofpeople,placesandthings encounteredintheperiod.ThoughMinnesotadidnotthenexist, Carver'sbookcertainlydid.Moreoveritstillexists.Thoseofyouwho attendedtheBellLibrary'sreceptionforASECSsawitwithyourown eyes.Andseeingisbelieving,isitnot? Certainlynot,asweallknow,andleastofallinthiscase.Carver's plagiarismsearnedhimprominentmentionamongtherogues'galleryso nicelyanalyzedinTravelersandTravelLiars1660-1800byPercyG. Adams,whocharacterizesCarveras"finally,themostnotoriousof these,atleastamongEnglishmen."AdamsnotesofCarverthat"Inone breathhemalignedLahontan,Hennepin,Adair,andCharlevoixandin thenextbreathtookhereachapteronIndianmarriageceremoniesfrom Lahontan,thereapassageonwarfromCharlevoix,hereadescriptionof IndianlacrossefromAdair,andthere'ashortVocabularyoftheChipe- wayLanguage'from'LaHontan'sDictionaryoftheAlgonquionLan- guage.'EventhefamousfuneralspeechwhichSchillerrewrotefrom CarverastheuniversallyadmiredNadowessiersTodtenliedwasitselfa Eighteenth-CenturyMinnesota? / 273 rewritingofoneinLahontan."7Carver'sTravelsthusposesitsownonto- logicalproblems. JohnParker'ssuperb1976editionofCarver'sjournals,whichhad remainedunpublishedforovertwocenturies,hastosomeextentrecu- peratedCarver'sreputationbyestablishingthathedidindeedgotoSt. Anthony'sfallsprettymuchashenarratesthetripinthefirstPartofhis Travels,producingenroutereasonablyaccuratemapsimportantfor cartographyoftheregion,therebyaddingtoknowledgeofitsgeography. UnacknowledgedborrowingsarelargelyconfinedtotheaccountofIndi- ansinparttwo.Andtheseplagiarismsmaybeascribedtoananonymous editorwhomCarvercalls"thereviser"inajournalpagegrantingpermis- siontoadd"anythingthattherevisershallseefittoaddtoembellishor givebettersence[sic]tothejournal."8Perhapssuchhelpcamefrom Carver'sfriendandphysicianDr.JohnLettsom,tryinghishandata littleliterarymalpractice.Morelikely,asJohnParkerargues,Carver's anonymouscollaboratorwasanobscureGrubStreetwriternamedAlex- anderBucknell.9 Inanycase,modernscholarshiphasshowninitsspoil-sportwaythat CarverwasneithertheonlynorthemajorauthorofTravelsThroughthe InteriorPartsofNorthAmerica.Modernscholarshiphasshowntoothat thetextisinitssecondpartlargelyakindofWhitman'sSamplerof delectablemorselsaboutIndianlifetakenfromthemostdelicious thoughnotnecessarilythemosttruthfulpartsofworksbyCarver's predecessors:unhealthyfareforthewould-beMinnesotahistorian, whosegloomatthesefindingsmayvergeonincurablemelancholy. Postmoderncriticaltheory,however,dispelssuchvaporsbyteaching usthatalthoughreaderslivetheAuthorisdead,thusrenderingirrelevant allworriesaboutauthorship."Carver"maybealludedtoasIshall henceforwarddowiththeunderstandingthatthisnameinconnection withauthorshipoftheTravelsrefersonlytoaconvenientfiction.Post- moderncriticaltheoryalsoteachesusthattheconditionofallliterature isintertextualdialogism.Seenfromthishappyperspective,Carver's Travelsoffersmoreadvantagesthanliabilities. Topostmoderneyes,itshithertodeplorableplagiarismsareahighly revealingcaseofconspicuousintertextualityinvitingexplication.Its hithertodeplorablyjumbledpassagesaboutIndianlifeliftedfromHen- nepin,Lahontan,Adairandothersareaculturaltreasure-trovesumming upinoneplaceforconvenientrecoveryavastrangeofcrucialattitudes heldconsciouslyorunconsciouslyaboutNorthAmerica.Becauseofits popularityCarver'sTravelspowerfullyshapedaswellasexpressedEuro- peanimaginingsoffirstencountersintheregiontowhichwehavetrav- eledforour1990meeting.Onthecoverofourprogramtheconference 274 / ALKON themeisproclaimedas"FrontiersintheEighteenthCentury:Imaginary andReal."ForthistopicCarver'sTravelsisanarchetypaltext.Init fantasyandrealitycombinetodelineaterelationshipsbetweenphysical andtemporalfrontiersinwaysthatIwantnowtooutlinebeforecon- cludingwithwhatIbelievetobethemoralofCarver'staleforus. II Consider"Carver"ashewaspresentedintheposthumous1781edition ofhisTravels.Herestrongreassuranceisprovidedbyanimposing authorialfigureinafrontispieceentitled"CaptainJonathanCarverfrom theoriginalPictureinthePossessionofJ.C.LettsomM.D."(figure5). ForthiseditionLettsomalsoattestedthenarrative'scredibilitybypro- vidinginadditiontotheportraitanaffectingbiographyofCarvertelling ofhisreligiouspiety,implyinghonesty;ofhisbraveserviceasaCaptain intheFrenchandIndianwar;ofhisarduousexplorations;andofhis patheticdeathofstarvationaftersubsequentstrugglestosupportanew familyduringadecadeinLondonwherehefailedtogetfurthergovern- mentemploymentoradequaterecompenseforpastservices.Lettsom doesnotvarythepanegyrictoneofhisaccountbyanyallusiontothe incongruousfactthatinadditiontoaLondonwifeandtwosmallchil- drenCarverathisdeathalsohadinNorthAmericaalivingwifeandfive morechildren.IfthisinformationmakesCaptainCarverlooktouslike somemoreportlybutequallyunreliableversionofCaptainMacheath, thereislittledoubtthatforeighteenth-centuryreadersthecredibilityof Carver'sbookwasonlyenhancedbyitsassociationwithLettsom,who waseminentlyrespectableasatrustworthypromoterofgenuinelyimportantmedicalprojects .10 Inprofilewitharmsrigidlybyhissideasthoughstandingatattention awaitinghismajesty'snextcommands,CaptainCarverisneatly groomed,nicelybewigged,well-dressedandwell-fedtothepointofa certaindouble-chinnedthoughpleasingplumpness.Hissomewhat inscrutableexpressionmightbedescribedasexpectant.Ignoringalike theartistandbeholdersoftheportrait,hestaresinwide-eyedbutcalm absorptionatsomethingoffinthedistancethatreaderscannotsee. Perhapscaughtinoneofhispropheticmoods,CarvermaybecontemplatingwithsatisfactionthatEurocentricmid -westernutopiahesoelo- quentlypredictedbyemphaticallyinsistingearlyinhisprefacethat "Thereisnodoubtbutthatatsomefutureperiod,mightykingdomswill emergefromthesewildernesses,andstatelypalacesandsolemntemples, withgildedspiresreachingtheskies,supplanttheIndianhuts,whose Eighteenth-CenturyMinnesota? / 275 Figure5.Frontispiece,JonathanCarver,TravelsThroughtheInteriorPartsofNorth America(London,1781). 276 / ALKΟN onlydecorationsarethebarbaroustrophiesoftheirvanquishedenemies" (viii).Formanytherewasdoubtlesscomfortinthisassurancethat despiteallthosegrislyscalp-polesonunsightlyIndianlodgesscattered throughouttheinteriorpartsofNorthAmerica,whatreallymattered wasnotthatpresentlandscapebutitsgloriousurbanfuture. ToCarver—andperhapstomostofhiseighteenth-centuryreaders— nativelifearoundtheFallsofSt.Anthonywasonlyapassingphaseof transientinterest.SuchemphasisonthefutureinCarver'sprefaceallows hisentireensuingdescriptionofIndiancustoms,manners,religion,and languageattheterminusofhisjourneytobetaken,asitwere,under erasure.ThuswhenreadersproceedtocontemplateCarver'smaps,they havealreadybeenencouragedbytheUtopianvisionofhisprefaceto regardgeographicalrealitiesofthefrontierasastablebasisoffuture culturaldevelopmentsthatwilldisplaceandrenderobsoletemostofthe demographicandpoliticalfeaturesdelineatedonthesesamemaps.In thisrespect,ofcourse,Carver'sTravelsisaltogethertypicalofEuropean viewsofthenewworld,notablemainlyforitsexplicitorientationtoward thefuture. Carver's"NewMapofNorthAmerica"(figure6)showsfrontier regionsthicklystuddedwithIndiannamesthatgivearoughideaoftribal boundaries,whereasIndiannomenclaturehasallbutvanishedfrom EasternareasdominatedbyEuropeans.The"PlanofCaptainCarver's TravelsintheInteriorPartsofNorthAmericain1766and1767"(figure 7)providesaclose-uppoliticalanatomyofafrontierlandscapethat includesregionsprominentlynamedtheChipewayTerritories,Winne- bagoLand,OttigaumiesLand,NaudowessieCountry,andNaudowessie ofthePlains.Thesetermswrittenincapitallettersvieinprominence withsuchpurelygeographicalfeaturesas"LakeSuperiour"andLake Michigan. SmallerprintincludesIndianplace-namesandpurelyphysicalinfor- mationlikeanotationontheSouthshoreofLakeSuperiorthat"about hereisPlentyofVirginCopper."Therearesomecombinationsofcul- turalandphysicalfactsasinthenotationjustnorthofthelakeatbottom leftthat"IntheseMountainsarelargeQuariesofRedMarblewherethe Neiboring[sic]NationsresorttogettheirCalematesofPeace"(i.e.their peacepipes).Mostofthesmallprintdealswithpolitics,althoughthe changingfortunesofintertribalwarfareareonlyglancedatinonenotationremarkingoflandtotheSouthwestofLakeSuperiorthat "Thisvast ExtentofCountryisnowpossess'dbytheChipeways."Itsformerowners arenotspecified.Othernotationsmerelydescribecurrentpoliticalgeog- raphyasinthecommentprintedtothesouthofWhiteBearLakeand RedLakethat"ThisistheRoadofWarbetweentheNadowessieand Eighteenth-CenturyMinnesota? / 277 Figure6."ANewMapofNorthAmerica,"JonathanCarver,Travels ThroughtheInteriorPartsofNorthAmerica(London,1778). Figure7."APlanofCaptainCarver'sTravels,"JonathanCarver,TravelsThrough theInteriorPartsofNorthAmerica(London,1778). 278 / ALKON Assiniboils."Carveraddshereanungrammaticalexplanationthat"All Country's[sic...