Comment

Julian R. Betts and Robert M. Costrell have contributed a splendid paper with useful policy implications. Two of their major arguments are the focus of my comments: (1) multiple cut points are better than single cut points for standards, and (2) standards appear to be working.

Multiple Cut Points

When I chaired the Design and Analysis Committee of the National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB), the committee considered the possibility of a dichotomous criterion of proficient versus nonproficient. But the committee members and I felt more information would be useful. In the end, we proposed three levels--Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. NAGB maintained these distinctions, and other groups have since found them useful. (In fact, there is a fourth level; that is, Below Basic.)

A disadvantage of several cut points, however, stems from the technical limitation of psychometric tests, particularly non-multiple-choice varieties. Conventional tests are optimized for discriminating best at a single cut point, often near an average. Other things being equal, they cannot discriminate equally well at other cut points. Computer-adaptive testing and longer tests can overcome this problem. However, these solutions may be innovative, costly, and difficult to implement.

Betts and Costrell emphasize that multiple cut points and differential standards give individual students across the ability spectrum reasonable targets to aim for. I would add that such differentiated standards can serve as goals for schools, local school districts, and states. If a dichotomous criterion of proficiency were employed, schools, for example, might concentrate all their energies on proficiency and neglect students near NAGB's Basic and Advanced levels. Still, it is not clear how many levels are needed, and several precedents may be useful in planning the best choice, given several variations in education policy.

The most long-lasting professional precedents for standards are the M.D. and the J.D.--both dichotomies. The medieval craft distinction was apprentice and journeyman, another dichotomy, which still reigns in many apprentice and other induction systems. The value to consumers of such dichotomous distinctions may be their simplicity; they economize on mental effort, a surprisingly precious resource. People want a proficient plumber or physician. Nonproficient practitioners such as apprentice plumbers and medical students may require extra negotiation, supervision, and uncertainty. Nonetheless, advanced specializations signaled by board certification and extensive experience may be useful indicators when nonroutine decisions are in order, as in the case of choosing a surgeon. Michael de Bakey, for example, as a consequence of carrying out thousands of heart operations, has dealt with rare complications that naturally arose in his specialized practice.

Occupational and professional practices and education systems in other countries may suggest tying standards to examination performance, years of schooling, or both. Many countries, for example, employ a trichotomous system of education--six years of primary school and three years of lower secondary school, both of which are compulsory. Three years of upper secondary education are elective. This third level may require matriculation examinations, and it may provide a terminal technical diploma or stepping-stone to managerial and professional careers requiring a university education.⁸⁷

Americans would like all of their students to be excellent and equal, too. But the country has not been successful at either of these contradictory criteria. U.S. test scores, especially valued-added test scores, compare unfavorably with those in other countries. At the same time, the United States has fallen behind other countries in the egalitarian ideal of providing a secondary education for all students.⁸⁸

For these reasons, it may be useful to consider standards-based school-leaving examinations required for a diploma. These might even be dichotomous standards required for diplomas, say, after nine and the ususal twelve years of schooling. The lower secondary diploma might guarantee general or basic proficiency for many nontechnical, nonmanagerial, and nonprofessional jobs. Several kinds of upper secondary diplomas could be created, one of which would be college preparatory; others might qualify students for specialized technical occupations such...