Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 (review)

Prepared as part of the commemorations of the 500^th anniversary of Vasco da Gama’s arrival in India (1498) and Pedro Álvares Cabral’s landing in Brazil (1500), this collection of essays provides an excellent overview of the emergence of early modern Europe’s first truly global empire. While the chapters convey the remarkable accomplishments of the Portuguese in the period between the conquest of Ceuta (1415) and the independence of Brazil (1822), they do not celebrate European supremacy; quite the contrary, images of Jesuits in Confucian garb and Portuguese mercenaries fighting in the service of African kings (sometimes against their own countrymen) illustrate the complexities of Portugal’s colonial experience. The volume as a whole strikes a commendable balance between addressing the Portuguese presence in the territory bordering the Atlantic and in the very different world they encountered around the Indian Ocean.

The editors group the essays under four broad themes: “Economics and Society,” “Politics and Institutions,” the “Cultural World,” and the “Comparative Dimension” (each chapter ends with a useful bibliographic essay that allows readers to explore more fully topics to which they have been introduced). This order highlights the economic and political emphases of expansion. Sailors braved the unknown in the service of God and king as they sought lucrative trade. Stuart Schwartz’s opening essay on the multifaceted economy of the empire discusses the historical shift from the primacy of Asian trade to the central importance of Brazil and Africa. Jorge Pedreira then tackles the long term balance sheet as he addresses the costs and revenues of the Portuguese empire between 1415 and 1822. A. J. R. Russell Wood and Isabel Guimarães Sá focus on common institutions that unified the diverse empire, from town governments to a missionary Catholic Church. These chapters provide the historical and institutional context for examining the fascinating adaptations illustrated by other authors. Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, for example, describes the new South Atlantic economy that emerged with the slave trade. Connections between Brazil and Angola, in particular, became enduringly important (and independent) as the crown allowed bilateral trade: manioc flour, tobacco, and cachaça shipped directly from Brazil were exchanged for African slaves. Michael Pearson, on the other hand, demonstrates how Portuguese insertion into the longstanding merchant networks of the Indian Ocean did little to change those communities. John Thornton’s excellent essay shatters the stereotypical view of one-sided European supremacy and exploitation in Africa. But how, then, were the Portuguese able to exert control for centuries in such vastly different regions with multiple cultural traditions? Francisco Bethencourt conceptualizes the crown’s ability to control the enormously diverse empire by what he terms a “nebula of power” (199). Certain common institutions, such as municipal councils and Misericórdias, appeared throughout the empire, but their relative power differed according to local circumstances. By dispersing control among competing subordinates, the crown allowed adaptation to myriad local conditions. The Portuguese Empire thus proved flexible enough to weather multiple challenges.

The essays on cultural transformations within the empire are among the most innovative in this volume. Francisco Contente Domingues explores ways in which the voyages themselves developed the spirit of experimentation that marked the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. Luís de Sousa Rebelo argues that these voyages promoted the transformation of the Portuguese language, not only through contact with different peoples, but also because the magnitude of Portuguese accomplishments demanded a literature that properly conveyed the importance of Lusitania. As the voyages took Portugal from the fringe of Europe to the center of global trade and conquest, Portuguese monarchs emulated more “cultured” Europeans by becoming patrons of literature and creating the first Portuguese universities. Luís de Moura Sobral’s essay discusses the global impact of the Portuguese voyages on art and architecture. Portuguese architecture endures in Asia, Africa, and America, while Asian, African, and American art has been...