The Semantics of -ship Suffixation

In this squib we explore the semantic conditions for English -ship suffixation. We propose that (a) the English suffix -ship is sensitive to the distinction between stage- and individual-level predicates, (b) this sensitivity is a lexical property of the suffix, and (c) the semantics of the base selects the specific meaning of -ship. Property (b) is the most interesting, for it shows that the difference between stage- and individual-level predicates is not purely pragmatic or semantic, but is indeed involved directly in the grammar of a language.

We will begin with the observation that, although -ship attaches to many common personal nouns (1a), it does not attach to all (1b). The natural question is, what separates the first group of nouns from the second?

(1)

1. a. airmanship, friendship, kingship, penmanship, priestship, sponsorship

2. b. ??parentship, ??wifeship, ??nieceship, ??womanship

According to Carlson (1977), stage-level predicates apply to temporary stages and denote properties of stages. Hence, they typically express transient properties. By contrast, individual-level predicates apply to individuals without regard to time. Hence, they express stable or enduring properties of individuals.

The distinction between stage- and individual-level predicates plays an important role in syntax (Carstairs 1973, Kratzer 1989, Pesetsky 1992).¹ To illustrate, certain sentences containing a clause introduced by if or when are well formed only when both clauses involve a stage-level property. Thus, my friends in (2a) means something like 'those who are my friends at some given time'. Hence, it is a stage-level predicate and (2a) is well formed. In contrast, my parents in (2b) does not mean 'those who are my parents at some given time'. The relation between parents and child is timeless and permanent. One's parents are one's parents without respect to time. Hence, my parents is an individual-level predicate and (2b) is not well formed. The grammatical contrast in (3) is explained in the same way.

(2)

1. a. I hate it when my friends are older than me.

2. b. *I hate it when my parents are older than me.

(3)

1. a. John hates it if Mary has long hair.

2. b. *John hates it if Mary has a long nose.

Musan (1995) observes that the independence of individual-level predicates from time predicts them to be inappropriate with temporal adverbs. The prediction is confirmed by data like the following, where the predicates in (4a) are individual-level and those in (4b) are stage-level:

(4)

1. a. *John's father is intelligent today.

   *John's father was recently altruistic.

   *John's father was honest at three o'clock this afternoon.

2. b. John's sponsor is available today.

   John's sponsor was recently sick.

   John's sponsor was available at three o'clock this afternoon.

Analogously to (4), (5) shows that the individual-/stage-level distinction also occurs among common personal nouns.

(5)

1. a.  John's longtime friend

2. b. John's longtime sponsor

3. c. ??John's longtime parents

4. d. ??John's longtime niece

For Gricean reasons, the permanent nature of the individual-level predicates parents and niece predicts that they are inappropriate with the adjective longtime, while longtime may modify stage-level predicates.

The distinction between stage- and individual-level predicates also plays a crucial role in English -ship suffixation. Consider again the examples in (1).

(1)

1. a. airmanship, friendship, kingship, penmanship, priestship, sponsorship

2. b. ??parentship, ??wifeship, ??nieceship, ??womanship

The base nouns in (1a) are stage-level predicates. They denote properties that hold at a given time, properties of stages. In contrast, the base nouns in (1b) are individual-level predicates. They denote stable or enduring properties of an individual. For clarification, we need a finer distinction among individual-level predicates:² left-side individual-level predicates and right-side individual-level predicates.

(6)

As shown in (6), left-side individual-level predicates denote properties that individuals have at birth and retain until a certain point in time. Girl and child are left-side individual-level predicates. For example, Mary is a girl at the time of her birth and ceases to be a girl at a certain age. Right-side individual-level...