American Empire? Ancient Reflections on Modern American Power

The American Empire, or, more properly, whether America has an empire, is a fiercely debated topic these days. You see the issue arise in newspaper editorials, magazine articles, television discussions, and prominent new books. Historians in particular have taken up the question. The short term cause, of course, is the controversial U.S. invasion and ongoing occupation of Iraq, which has dominated headlines ever since its beginning. But for years before this second U.S.-Iraq war, talk about the United States as Empire had been on the rise, stemming from the fact that since the fall of the Soviet Union the United States has been seen as "the world's lone superpower." This phrase is a cliché by now, but it points to an undeniable truth: no other nation on earth comes close to matching America's combination of military power, military reach, alliances, advanced technology, and economic strength. And since the psychologically devastating attacks on the country on September 11, 2001, American policy has changed regarding the use of its unrivalled power around the globe. In 2002 the president boldly announced a new strategic doctrine of preemption, whereby the United States reserves the right to launch attacks against perceived foes anywhere in the world at any time simply because the government thinks a hostile act might be in the offing somewhere, at some time. In the official U.S. government policy statement "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America" one reads:

The greater the threat, the greater is the risk of inaction—and the more compelling the case for taking anticipatory action to defend ourselves, even if uncertainty remains as to the time and place of the enemy's attack. To forestall or prevent such hostile acts by our adversaries, the United States will, if necessary, act preemptively. The United States will not use force in all cases to preempt emerging threats, nor should nations use preemption as a pretext for aggression. Yet in an age where the enemies of civilization openly and actively seek the world's most destructive technologies, the United States cannot remain idle while dangers gather.¹

Combining such ominous policy statements with America's vast power and especially the campaigns launched in recent years in distant Afghanistan and Iraq—both stunning initial military successes with as yet uncertain long-term political outcomes—one understands how and why many observers have come to see America's place in the world as increasingly imperial and have sought to compare the "American Empire" with previous empires.

To a large extent historians and classicists should welcome the interest in this subject. It is always good to see public attention turn to history and efforts made to place current events into a broad historical context. But, of course, it is even better to get the right context, and I do have some concerns about the easy labeling of the United States as an empire. Being a classical historian, I have had plenty of occasions to teach the history of the Roman Empire and Greek empires that preceded it, especially that of fifth-century B.C. Athens. The history and terminology of these classical empires—and later ones as well—offer insights about how one may define what is an empire and whether it is correct to describe American power as imperial; it may also help us understand where America is (or is not) headed as a great power.

Historians and others offering views on the subject often favor one of two terms to describe contemporary American preeminence in international politics: empire or hegemony. The first has become increasingly popular since the military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq and sometimes seems to be employed especially for its shock value. Syndicated columnists like to use the term, and undistinguished, opportunistic books like Jim Garrison's America as Empire have appeared on the bookshelves of major chain stores. Some professional historians have even brandished the term in protesting the Iraq War.² But there are also scholarly debates about the idea of an American empire or American hegemony, and these promise to be more...