The Criminalization of Capoeira in Nineteenth-Century Brazil

In the early nineteenth century public officials in Rio de Janeiro viewed capoeira merely as a game (jogo) played by black slaves. Although contemporary travelers' accounts and engravings initially portrayed it as a warlike dance that embodied certain African rituals and martial art traditions, by the end of the century they described it as a tool that enabled slaves to commit offences and criminal acts against their masters. The capoeiras (participants), who were by then mostly natives of Brazil, were characterized as cold-blooded murderers who were unruly and undermined the foundations of the local society. In other words, within a few decades, references to capoeira changed dramatically: the "game" became "dangerous criminal act."

Capoeira in Rio de Janeiro never lost its character as a play and contained all the ingredients of a "game of life," as perceived by the descendants of the West Central African slaves, even as the ethnic and racial background of the capoeiras became more diverse. The capoeiras organized public contests for entertainment. They played capoeira in military and religious processions and scorned and derided public officials. Their performance was accompanied by music, dance, and interaction with the spectators. Although public officials attempted to brand the capoeiras as dangerous and violent hoodlums, the masses admired and respected the performers.

A Dramatic Transformation: From Game to Martial Art

Nineteenth-century travelers' accounts and arrest books described capoeira as a game played by African slaves. Johann Moritz Rugendas (João Mauricio Rugendas), an Austrian artist who toured Brazil in the 1820s, drew two illustrations entitled Jogo de capoeira and São Salvador (see figures 1 and 2).

These scenes reflect a tranquil atmosphere of a social event accompanied by musical instruments and applauses. The wide distance between the participants, their special movements, and the many acts the observers were engaged in (watching, eating, flirting) complete this impression. In addition, period documents describe capoeira as an activity for public amusement and entertainment, emphasizing its playful aspects: "His Excellency sends today, tomorrow and all the rest of the days, to arrest all the blacks and mulattos who were found entertained in capoeira games." ¹ However, as Rugendas pointed out, this game often ended as a bloody event that led to severe injuries and even death:

The blacks have another game that is much more violent, the capoeira: Two combatants push against each other, trying to hit the adversary's chest with his head, as they attempt to throw the other to the ground. . . . Often times they strongly strike each other's head, which causes the game to degenerate into a fight where knives are introduced, turning it into a bloody game. ²

Public officials also made a distinction between the game and the disorder caused by it. Police Commandant Paulo Fernandes Viana was informed that "The black capoeiras appear in this city, especially in Direita Street, causing disorder by throwing stones as a consequence of these games. This has occurred in many regions. It is necessary . . . to arrest not only participants but also those causing disorder." ³ Fifteen years later, the same distinction was made. The decree of 27 July 1831 demanded the arrest of "effective black capoeiras, as well as those who practice it, even with the purpose of entertainment." ⁴

There were consistent efforts to obliterate capoeira in a variety of ways. Severe punishments were inflicted on capoeiras, including prolonged incarceration of up to three months as well as 50 to 300 lashes. For example, Fernando Mocambique was jailed and received 100 lashes as punishment for "playing capoeira with others who escaped." ⁵ Ignacio Mossange, one of Antonio da Cunha slaves, received 300 lashes and 3 months of imprisonment for being "found with a razor while playing capoeira." ⁶

Early in the nineteenth century, public authorities rejected and banned the capoeira game out of fear that it might cause disorder and also because it was played by...