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261 The Importance of Flexibility: An Analysis of the Large-Scale Tana-Delta Irrigation Project in Kenya, Implemented Under an Estate System Delphine Lebrun, Olivier Hamerlynck, Stéphanie Duvail and Judith Nyunja Introduction Although history has always been driven by “change”, it seems that precisely “change” has also been the challenge to development. The constant evolution of the environment is the essence of sustainability, but also its major constraint. This is equally true for the evolution of human society. Moreover, as demographic pressure has become more intense over the past decades, discordance between environmental and social dynamics has increased significantly. On the one hand, this article portrays the idea that the environment is constantly changing, and that it is emerging as the outcome of dynamic and variable ecological processes and disturbance events, in constant interaction with human use.1 Therefore, the availability of natural resources varies over place and in time. On the other hand, communities should be seen as a set of complex, on-going social negotiations and shifting alliances, rather than as stable, homogeneous and harmonious entities.2 They can therefore not be treated as static, rule-bound wholes, since they are composed of people who actively monitor, interpret and shape the world around them.3 Local communities traditionally develop livelihood4 strategies adapted to their natural environment, in order to minimise their vulnerability. The interaction between environmental services and various social actors is shaped by formal and informal institutions,5 which influence and determine the access to and entitlement over livelihood assets (natural, human, physical, social and financial capital). The relationships among institutions and between scale levels (micro-, meso- and macro-) determine which social actors gain access to and control over the local resources. In turn institutions influence the uses to which resources are put and the way they are managed; and, thus progressively help to shape and modify the landscape over time.6 This article explores the relevance of integrating existing environmental and social dynamics for development purposes. Referring to an analysis of the Tana Delta Irrigation Project (TDIP) in Kenya, it emphasizes the importance of flexibility during the planning and the implementation of development projects. The TDIP was implemented at the end of last century and had important (and predicted) negative environmental and social consequences – working through until today. The large-scale rice project had a strong top-down implementation and did not recover from an El Niño shock (1997). It is a typical example of a failure of integration that needs in-depth analysis and understanding before 262 introducing new projects to the same area. In fact, by granting participation to local communities and granting them ownership, the chances for effective integration of traditional local knowledge and externally imposed ruling institutions in development projects can significantly improve. This paper is based on the “Conflict and Development” Master’s thesis presented by Delphine Lebrun at the University of Ghent, Belgium under the direction of Prof. Koen Vlassenroot, coordinator of the Conflict Research Group. Context (a) Study Area The TDIP scheme is situated along the Tana River, in parts of Salama Location, Garsen Division of the Tana Delta District, Kenya.7 The Tana River arises in the Aberdare Mountains and Mount Kenya and runs over more than 1000 km to the eastern part of Kenya.8 Due to its intense meandering and shifting character between Garsen and its estuary in Kipini, the fan-shaped delta forms a wetland ecosystem that occupies a surface of about 3000 km², fringed by sand dunes towards the sea.9 For the local people the Tana River is the main source of water for domestic use but also provides water for a wide range of wetland-associated ecosystem services, e.g. for recession agriculture, irrigation, fishing, dry-season pasture, collection of wetland plants and animals used as food, medicine and thatching materials, reed, clay and sand harvesting, bathing, swimming and cultural practices. It provides for river transport (especially for farm and fisheries produce) and is an important security barrier against bandits, which is enhanced by the presence of crocodiles and hippopotamuses. The flood-dependent ecosystem is home to a rich biodiversity10 dispersed in the floodplains, oxbow lakes and riverine forest patches (e.g. Masha, Kirume, Mkunumbi, Mkayumbe, Kanekeneke).11 Around 7000 people live in Salama Location, and they have developed a strong affinity with and possess a vast knowledge of the environment12 . Hence, they have an age-old tradition of livelihood diversification that is based on the wetland’s ecosystem services...

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