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Champa Revised
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363 Champa Revised Michael Vickery As the title of this paper implies, I consider that the history of Champa, which, as a whole, has hardly been given critical study since Georges Maspero’s 1928 book, is in need of revision.1 The important points which require revision are the following: (a) The origins of the Austronesian-speaking Cham who now live in Vietnam and Cambodia. (b) The Linyi problem. Was Linyi identical with Champa, from the beginning of records concerning it, or from a later date, or if not, what was it?2 (c) Relations with Vietnam, in particular the notion that Champa, including Linyi, was always a victim of expansionism by its northern neighbour. (d) The narrative of the history of Champa as conceived by Maspero. Although his book received critical attention soon after its publication and more thoroughly later on from Rolf Stein, his main conclusions passed literally into the famous synthesis by George Coedès and have continued to exert strong influence on further work, including total acceptance by some linguists within the last decade.3 This revision includes examination of the political-administrative status of the areas inhabited by the Cham as identified by architectural and chapter 16 16 ChamViet.indd 363 1/17/11 11:37:02 AM Michael Vickery 364 epigraphic remains and extending from Quảng Bình to south of Phan Rang. That is, was there a single unitary state/kingdom of Champa as depicted in the standard classical scholarship, a federation of polities dominated by the Austronesian-speaking Cham, or two or more quite distinct, sometimes competing, polities?4 SOURCES There are three types of sources for Champa history: (1) physical remains — brick structures considered to be temples, associated sculpture, and materials obtained from archaeological excavation; (2) inscriptions in Old Cham and Sanskrit; and (3) references in Chinese and Vietnamese histories about relations between those countries and the various polities south of the Chinese provinces in what is now northern Vietnam and, after the late tenth century, South of territory claimed by Vietnam. Physical Remains The physical remains above ground, the temples, show through their architecture at least three distinct regions which began their development at approximately the same time — roughly, on that evidence, the eighth to ninth centuries. However, it is certain that there was earlier architecture which has disappeared and that the real beginnings were earlier. From North to South these regions are (1) Quảng Nam, in particular the Thu Bồn valley, the location of Mỹ Sơn, Trà Kiệu and Đồng Dương; (2) the region of Nha Trang with the Pô Nagar complex, and (3) the region of Phan Rang, where parts of Hòa Lai may date back to the eighth century, and which should perhaps be considered to include the structures of Pô Dam and Phan Thiết farther South.5 Another region where the temple remains are quantitatively very significant is around Quy Nhơn, but the structures there have been dated to the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, with no earlier remains. All of these regions were located at very good river-mouth ports or on rivers not far from the sea. One ancient site in the Thu Bồn valley where complete above-ground structures had disappeared by the time the subject received modern interest, but where impressive sculpture was still found, is Trà Kiệu, some 20–30 km from Mỹ Sơn; its importance since perhaps the first century has been revealed by archaeology.6 16 ChamViet.indd 364 1/17/11 11:37:02 AM [3.85.241.10] Project MUSE (2024-03-29 16:49 GMT) Champa Revised 365 There are two more rivers which must have been important in early Champa, although so far they have not received adequate attention. One — which, as I shall show, has never been given the attention it deserves — is the Trà Khúc in Quảng Ngãi, with two citadels: Châu Sa (apparently a large fortified city) and Cổ Lũy (where some important sculpture, perhaps dating from the seventh to eighth centuries, has been found).7 The other river is the Đà Rằng (Sông Ba), which flows into the sea at Tuy Hòa, between Quy Nhơn and Nha Trang; it is the largest river valley in Vietnam. Remains from different periods have been found along its length, a fifthcentury Sanskrit inscription at its...