The Virgin Mary and Catholic Identities in Chinese History

Notes

Introduction: Chinese Catholic identities in the modern period 1. Statistical figures in China are notoriously difficult to ascertain and to verify. The figure of more than twelve million is the best estimate based on research by JeanPaul Wiest, who states that “the Catholic church population is estimated at 12 million plus”, in “Catholics in China: The Bumpy Road towards Reconciliation”, International Bulletin of Missionary Research 27, no. 1 (January 2003): 5; the Holy Spirit Study Centre estimated that there were ten million Chinese Catholics, “Estimated Statistics of Chinese Catholic Church, 1996”, Tripod 16, no. 96 (1996): 70. Donald MacInnis stated “there are an estimated 5 million to 12 million Catholics today, up from 3.3 million in 1949”, in “From Suppression to Repression: Religion in China Today”, Current History 95, no. 604 (1996): 284–304. Finally, I follow Wiest, op. cit., in talking of one Catholic church in China, thereby avoiding unhelpful and inaccurate binaries like “underground” and “patriotic”. China’s population is estimated in 2011 to be over 1.3 billion people (http://www.dfat.gov. au/geo/fs/chin.pdf). 2. The churches were placed under French protection as a result of the Treaty of Whampoa (Huangpu), signed in 1844, and the Treaty of Tianjin, signed in 1858, discussed in Chapter 2. 3. A Chinese Dominican priest, Luo Wenzao, was consecrated a bishop on 8 April 1685 and appointed vicar apostolic of Nanjing, which was elevated to a see in 1690, with Luo as its first bishop. 4. The five official religions are Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Christianity and Catholicism. 5. Doreen Massey, “Entanglements of Power, Reflections”, in Entanglements of Power: Geographies of Domination/Resistance, edited by J. P. Sharp et al. (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 282–83. 6. This stage of history has also been called the late imperial or the late Qing period; see, for instance, John K. Fairbank (ed.), Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). The term “modern” incorporates both the time during and after the opium war treaties, Notes the reform periods around the time of the fall of the Qing and then the Republican period. Some examples include Yan Kejia, Zhongguo Tianzhujiao Jianshi [A history of the Catholic Church in China] (Beijing: Zongjiao Wenhua Chubanshe, 2001); James T. Myers, Enemies without Guns: The Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China (New York: Paragon, 1991); Laszlo Ladany, The Catholic Church in China (New York: Freedom House, 1987); and Eric O. Hanson, Catholic Politics in China and Korea (New York: Orbis Books, 1980). 7. For the colonial/indigenous binary, see, for instance, Jacques Gernet, China and the Christian Impact: A Clash of Cultures, translated by Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) and several of the speeches concerning religious policy in Li Weihan, Tongyi Zhanxian Wenti yu Minzu Wenti [Problems of the United Front and problems with nationalities] (Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1981). For the Catholic/Communist binary, see Dalujiao Nan Sishi Zhounian Jiniankan [Memorial publication on the anniversary of the Mainland church’s forty years of suffering] (Taipei: Jiu-Ba Bianji Weiyuanhui, 1995); François Dufay, En Chine L’étoile contre La Croix (Paris: Casterman, 1955); and George N. Patterson, Christianity in Communist China (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1969). For a more general collection of essays, see Jason Kindopp and Carol Lee Hamrin (eds.), God and Caesar in China: Policy Implications of Church-State Tensions (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004). Paul Philip Mariani, Church Militant: Bishop Kung and Catholic Resistance in Communist Shanghai (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011) is another example of this. Lastly, see Gu Weimin, Zhongguo Tianzhujiao Biannianshi [The annals of the Catholic Church in China] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian Chubanshe, 2003) and Claude Soetens, L’Église Catholique en Chine au XXe Siècle (Paris: Beauchesne, 1997). 8. See, for example, Eriberto P. Lozada, Jr., God Aboveground: Catholic Church, Postsocialist State and Transnational Processes in a Chinese Village (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001). See, as one example, Richard Madsen, China’s Catholics: Tragedy and Hope in an Emerging Civil Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). 9. See Wang Zuoan, Zhongguo de Zongjiao Wenti he Zongjiao Zhengce [The religious problems and religious regulations of China] (Beijing: Zongjiao Wenhua Chubanshe, 2002); Angelo S. Lazzarotto, The Catholic Church in Post-Mao China (Hong Kong: Holy Spirit Study Centre, 1982); Kim-Kwong Chan and Eric R. Carlson, Religious Freedom in China: Policy, Administration, and Regulation—A Research Handbook...