Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom: Responding to Individual Needs

9. The Social Context of Learning

9 The Social Context of Learning Shane N. Phillipson To understand the complete range of factors that influence learning, it is important to consider the social context of learning—that is, the broad group of external factors that either contribute to or inhibit student learning, especially in relation to academic achievement. These factors are in the environment, external to the student. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • place the Chinese classroom within a social context (i.e. Chinese culture); • develop an understanding of the relationship between Confucianism and student achievement; • understand the interactions among various factors within the social context of learning; and • focus on the importance of family expectations for student achievement. The cultural context can be considered the broadest of all the external factors affecting learning. As one of its central themes, this book situates learning within the Chinese culture: ‘being Chinese’ is the overarching context within which Hong Kong’s students learn, and helps to determine the way in which all the other factors affecting learning are understood. The first section of this chapter discusses the cultural basis of learning, including the nature of culture, the unique features of the Chinese culture and the effects of these features on student learning. The discussion is based on recent research in cross-cultural studies and broad themes in Chinese psychology. Some relevant books on this area include The Chinese Learner (Watkins and Biggs 1996), Growing Up the Chinese Way (Lau 1996b), Teaching the Chinese Learner (Watkins and Biggs 2001b), Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom (Phillipson 2007) and Themes in Chinese Psychology (Sun 2008). The chapter discusses also other ‘contexts’, such as gender, exceptionality, family, peers, teachers, schools and socio-economic status. It outlines studies on sex-based differences in cognitive functioning and cultural expectations (gender). Learning difficulties, special needs, and giftedness are briefly considered (exceptionality). (For a more detailed discussion, refer to Phillipson [2007].) Also tackled are the impact of students’ relationships with their parents and siblings 232 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom on student learning (family), the influence of schoolmates on student achievement (peers), and the effects of different teaching approaches and school characteristics and policies on student achievement (teachers and schools). Finally, there is a brief consideration of the effects of recent reforms in Hong Kong, for example on the medium of instruction (MOI), on student learning. Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory of Human Development As noted in Chapter 6, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory of human development (1995; Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998) is usually modelled as a series of concentric circles, with the child in the innermost circle. The microsystem represents the factors that directly influence a child’s development, including biological factors, the child’s family and other individuals (e.g. friends, classmates and teachers). The mesosystem covers the interactions among the components of the microsystem. The exosystem describes the links between the child’s immediate contacts and the social setting of these contacts and the macrosystem includes the ideologies, values, customs and laws of a particular culture. Although not represented as one of the concentric circles, the final level in the model is the chronosystem, which helps explain changes that occur over time. Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s model, which is influenced by Vygotsky’s social constructivist theories, focuses on the child and his/her interactions with the social context of learning—some of which encourage the child to learn, while others inhibit learning. Using this model as the conceptual component, this chapter is organized according to the various levels of the theory, beginning with the microsystem. Clearly, however, more research is needed to identify all the components of the theory. The Nature of Culture Culture embodies a wide range of levels and influences, with each level relating to the patterns of behaviour, attitudes, values and customs that identify groups of people as distinct from other groups. The number of people in these groups can range from very small to very large, and so it is possible to identify many subcultures within a larger culture. People’s membership of a given culture and subculture has consequences for their daily behaviour, particularly in personally challenging situations when they usually revert back to culturally appropriate patterns of behaviour. The Social Context of Learning 233 Culture helps people to establish personal identities. An important aspect of identity is ethnicity: within an ethnic group, individuals share a common history, geographical ancestry, language...