Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom: Responding to Individual Needs

8. Language Development of Chinese Learners

8 Language Development of Chinese Learners Shane N. Phillipson This chapter describes the development of first language (L1) and second language (L2), and the relationship that exists between language development and the acquisition of knowledge. Many textbooks on educational psychology include sections on the broad relationship between language and cognitive development, but the treatment of the topic is often superficial. As a consequence, readers usually need to consult other textbooks on language development. This chapter aims to bridge the gap between language development from the perspective of educational psychology and from the many texts that focus on language development itself. Also highlighted are strategies that all teachers can use to support L1 and L2 learning, particularly for the benefit of Chinese learners. Throughout this chapter, emphasis is placed on the theories of L1 development thought to be common across all languages, despite the fact that much of the research is related to L1 English development; but the learning of English (L2) for Chinese-speaking students is also considered. Since this chapter deals with the link between language development and knowledge acquisition, it will be useful for all teachers, not just teachers of language. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • contrast the terms used in the study of language; • draw distinctions between behavioural, nativist and interactionist models of language development; • understand the differences between the main models of L1 and L2 development; • note the link between language and thinking; • compare different methods of teaching English as a second language; and • devise broad strategies based on theories of L1 and L2 learning. This chapter is divided into four broad sections. The first discusses the nature of language and how it is studied, highlighting the relationship between language and thinking. Next, the models of language acquisition are described, including the terminology that defines this field of scientific research. The third section focuses on the development of English among Chinese speakers, and the final one is devoted to teaching strategies that support L1 and L2 learning. 204 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Contexts of Language Development In the modern era, more and more learners are encountering languages other than their first language. In Hong Kong, for example, government policies reflect directly the important roles played by bilingualism and trilingualism in economic development (Standing Committee on Language Education and Research [SCOLAR] 2003). These policies have resulted in changes in the way languages are used in classrooms, with public pressure ensuring that more capable students are taught in English despite Cantonese being their first language (Lai 2009). Many parents and schools also advocate the use of Putonghua, the national language of China, as the medium of instruction, aside from English. In broad terms, the educational system of Hong Kong is characterized by tensions between the government’s concern for mother-tongue teaching, the concern of parents for educational opportunities, the need for the wider business community to be competitive economically, and the students’ need for identity and power (Choi 2003; Lai 2009; Phillipson 2005). At the classroom level, however, the teacher’s primary concern is the relationship between language and effective learning, including the relationship between L1 and learning, and L2 and learning. Students differ in both L1 and L2 proficiency, and an understanding of the sources of individual differences will help teachers to implement more effective learning experiences for students. What Is Language? In analysing language, Sternberg and Williams (2002) outlined five ‘properties’: communication, arbitrariness, meaningful structure, multiplicity of structure and productivity (Table 8.1). Also Harley (1995, cited in Long 2000) defined language as a ‘system of symbols and rules that enable us to communicate’, including both spoken words and (non-verbal) symbols. The rules of language vary according to language systems, but all languages involve the effective combination of words and symbols to communicate ideas clearly. Language systems allow for an infinite number of meaningful combinations. Language evolved as a tool that allows members of a social group to share ideas and to influence the behaviour of others (McLaughlin 2006). As a tool, language is successful because members of social groups agree to the rules governing the use of symbols, including those related to speaking, writing and gesturing. Speech, one form of language, differs across social groups separated by geography, socio-economic levels, cultural differences and ethnicity; and these differences in speech or dialect exist when the written language remains constant. Differences in dialects arise because of possible differences in pronunciations, word meanings, and grammar. [18.118.200...