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96 Stella Hurd The TAPs procedure Students’ reactions to the TAPs procedure were largely positive, and suggested that TAPs might also be a useful tool for awarenessraising , e.g. • ‘I think if I hadn’t been recording this, I probably wouldn’t have checked that part. I really was quite sure, so that just shows ...’ • ‘TheprocessofthinkingaloudasIworkedwasslightlyintimidating, but not seriously so. Given more usage, the fact that you are talking to someone remote might sharpen the focus possibly.’ • ‘I’ve thoroughly enjoyed this, thank you so much for giving me the opportunity to do it … it has really helped me.’ Discussion and conclusion In this chapter, I set the scene for the investigation of emotion and cognition in independent language learning contexts, exploring some of the main issues surrounding affect and why it should be investigated, outlining the difficulties inherent in such investigations in terms of both learners and context, and suggesting appropriate methodologies. Qualitative research tools such as focus groups, interviews, diaries and particularly TAPs, all provide a means of gaining insights into the processes involved in independent language learning and indicate the factors that influence the ways in which learners relate to their learning environment. They also provide a rich database and an end-product which is a contribution to knowledge (Wolcott 1999). In addition, they conform well to the increasing emphasis on process models in language learning, where constructs such as motivation, anxiety and beliefs interrelate in a ‘dynamic, ever-changing process’ (Dörnyei 2005, 66), and with the growing recognition that these inter-relationships are crucial to an understanding of individual language learning. It is important to bear in mind, however, that despite the ability of these qualitative approaches to probe more deeply, any discourse from students, as Granger (2004, 90) warns, ‘can only ever paint a partial picture’ and that ‘the study of affect is a speculative art’. From this we can conclude that whichever methods are used, there is no guarantee that we will find simple answers to our research questions. Indeed, responses may well reveal more complexity as we attempt to expand and deepen our knowledge. In terms of future directions, Dewaele (2005, 367) argues for more interdisciplinarity in the field of language learning: ‘SLA needs to account for the psychological and emotional dimensions of second- Research methods to investigate emotions in independent language learning 97 language learning’. He adds that including these dimensions in research programmes can contribute to a ‘broadening of the theoretical and methodological horizons of the field of instructed SLA’. Dewaele’s argument is very relevant to independent language learning, where, as we saw from the TAPs study, the special features of the distance language learning context can give rise to a wide range of emotions, in particular negative ones such as confusion, fear, anxiety and frustration, which can influence student attitudes to learning and adversely affect their levels of self-efficacy. The findings of another study (GläserZikuda and Fuss 2008, 137) underline this point: ‘Research on negative emotions demonstrated that different aspects of instruction may cause anxiety, for example, unstructured learning material, lack of feedback and lack of transparency in achievement demands’. The researchers concluded that we should attempt to ‘reduce anxiety by respecting individual student capabilities and personality’. As I have argued, these issues are particularly acute for those learning in independent contexts, and highlight the need for highquality learner support through learning materials with a transparent structure, clearly formulated learning outcomes and individual feedback that is constructive and delivered in an appropriate tone. According to Robinson (2002, 8) ‘motivation and anxiety can clearly often be changed and shaped through teacher intervention in learning’. Learner support mechanisms in independent language learning therefore need to be sensitive to factors such as the desire for privacy, negative feelings about language learning and autonomy, and fear of failure. They should be ‘flexible enough to cater for diverse variables, sensitively and effectively: a formidable task which raises a number of important questions, all the more so in an environment of learning that is constantly evolving’ (Hurd 2008, 89). Researchers are increasingly looking for ‘research designs and methods which capture the learning process and students’ motivational expectations in real contexts’ (Järvelä, Järvenoja and Veermans 2008). The distinct advantage of TAPs is the potential they have to reveal in considerable detail the information students are attending to while performing their tasks. They are considered to be less subject to ‘embellishment or decay of information’ (Pressley and Afflerbach 1995) than retrospective methods...

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