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In order to understand Hong merchants’ businesses it is important to first understand the trading environment in which they operated. Four levels of officials were in charge of the trade and foreigners: governor-generals, customs superintendents, governors and magistrates. There were three basic merchant classes, and all of them could purchase civil degrees to gain social status and provide some protection against failure. Most of the products merchants sold were produced in east-central China and transported to Canton via a long human caravan. Credit, capital and consignments were very important to trade, and growth would have been much hindered without them. Imports were tied to exports in a system called ‘truck’, and all Hong merchants were subject to the constraints of this practice. A security merchant or ‘fiador’ was responsible for each foreign ship, and in return he expected to supply the largest share of exports to that vessel. Customs superintendents ensured competition prevailed among the foreign community by maintaining transparency in their trade figures. Sophisticated bookkeeping practices enabled companies to hold employees and trading partners responsible via extensive paper trails. The large East India companies were important to the control of trade, and the Chinese government depended on them for the maintenance of harmony. Contraband was smuggled in and out of China throughout the eighteenth century via well-established smuggling networks. The consoo fund helped to pay the arrears of failed merchants and cover the cost of expensive gifts sent to superiors each year by levying a tax on certain commodities. All of these issues will be discussed below, which will outline and define the parameters of trade. I begin with the officials who were responsible for managing the trade and keeping the peace. ADMINISTRATING OFFICIALS All Chinese merchants involved in foreign trade, regardless of their rank, were under the direct supervision of the customs superintendent (known more commonly as the ‘Hoppo’ 戶 部 ), and/or governor-general of Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces ( 總督 known as the Tsontuck or Viceroy), and/or the governor of Guangdong Province ( 撫院 known as the Fohien). All three officials were involved with the merchants, trade and foreigners, on some level, but the duties each performed in the trade varied with the circumstances of the time. If a Hoppo happened to die in office, for example, the governor-general or governor might fill his spot, until a new man was appointed. C H A P T E R O N E  THE TRADING ENVIRONMENT Paul_01_ch01.indd 7 Paul_01_ch01.indd 7 11年9月8日 下午2:18 11年9月8日 下午2:18 8 Merchants of Canton and Macao All three officials were appointed by Beijing. In policy they were supposed to serve three years and then be reassigned to another post. In practice, however, they served terms that varied from one to ten or more years, based on their performances and the circumstances of the time. They might also serve one stint in Canton, then move to another province for their next post, and then be reassigned back to their former post in Canton. Some of these officials were thus very well trained with several years of experience handling trade and foreigners, while others were newcomers who had to learn everything from scratch. The level of expertise and experience of each of these officials were factors that affected what each of them might be responsible for. Their ultimate goal was the maintenance of harmony so they did what they had to do to reach that outcome. There were numerous times when one or more of these posts were vacant for a short period while waiting for a new appointee to arrive, which could bring a temporary halt to the trade. All new arrivals needed to be properly greeted by the top officials and merchants in Canton. The first greeting was informal and usually done at about a day’s distance from the city; a second ‘official’ welcoming ceremony was conducted shortly after the officials arrived. Between the three offices, these greetings were often annual events, which meant a temporary halt of trade, for a few days, or a week or more. On the birthdays of these officers, the emperor, or the emperor’s mother, officials and merchants might also hold celebrations. Sometimes old and new appointees, civil and military, passed through Canton on their way to their next posts, which also required a greeting ceremony. During all of these events, the top Canton merchants were required to attend, because they were responsible for financing the gatherings. Sometimes top foreign...

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