Geography and the Environment in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Geology Jubilee Symposium, The University of Hong Kong, 21-25 June 1976

8. The Impact of Urbanization on the Environment -- a Case Study of Bangkok

VIII THE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT - ACASE SruDY OF BANGKOK Shao-er Ong Never before have problems of the enVlronment received so much attention as today. A deteriorating environment is viewed as one of three threats, together with nuclear war and a worldwide food shortage, menaclOg the survival of human civi1ization (Dwyer, 1972). The United Nations held a World Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972),while the World Bank has financed severa1 important projects dea1ing with environmental problems (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development , 1974; 1975). In Asia, ESCAP (the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) also gives top priority to asslsting member countries in tackling simi1ar problems (see United Nations ESCAP, 1975a, b,c). The emergence of environmental problems largely derives from dynamic and rapid urbanization. Urbanization represents a series of development processes including the increase in urban population, the expansion of city space, the adoption of new sciences and technology, the acceleration of economic growth and changes in social institutions. These processes involve al1 forms of human interaction which exploit available natural resources and cultura1 endowment. Because of differences in individual aspirations, abilities and opportunities, not everyone can attain the same level of achievement. As a result, inequa1ities of income distribution and Iiving standards a1so emerge. Man has been continuously cha1lenged by the twin problems of how to provide himself with adequate sustenance and how to manage the production and disposal of his ‘residuals' or ‘garbage' (Kneese, Ayres and D'Arge, 1970). Failure to make ba1anced progress a10ng both fronts will Iffipose serious constraints on societal growth and development. The income gaps so common in large cities are themselves a source of environmenta1 problems. The high income group tends to have low income elasticity of demand for 88 SHAO-ER ONG commodities and services related to sustenance, but a high income elasticity of demand for more effective disposal of residuals and for environmental amenities (Rutt側， 1971). For the low income group, the鉛 tendencies are reversed. City people have a variety of professions and a wide range of attitudes towards the adoption of new technology and new ways of Iife. Some adopt sooner than others. Experience shows that the adoption of techmcal changes moves faster than the adoption 01 social changes. This too creates many problems in social adjustment. Inadequate employment op. portunities and insufficient educational facilities due to over-population increase the incidence of violence and crime (Clina叫， 1968; Lunden, 1967). Such potenti到 consequences have brought increasmg scepticism about the merits ofurbanization. Urbanization in Bangkok has fol1owed mu~h the same processes of development as in other cities of the world. As 1 hailand's single principal Clty Bangkok has, however,exhibited its own uniquc characteristics in attainmg urban growth. This paper describes selected ch‘uacteristics of Bangkok's urbanization, the factors influencing city growth，甘le impact ofurbanization on the environment, and the hopes and uncertail\ties surrounding future development. CHARACTERlSTICS OF BANGKOK URB 4.NIZAT/ON Within less than half a century, the Bangkok metropolis has developed from an ancient pre-industrial settlement to an impressive modern capital city. Anything related to Thailand is normally referred to Bangkok and such is its importance that it has been termed a ‘city state' (Anonymous, 1974). Bangkok has achieved the prestigious status of the single seat of power, opportunity and learning in the Kingdom of Thailand. Selected charac. teristics of the urbanization process are summarized below. Physical[eatures As far as climate and topography are concerned, Bangkok has had few advantages for city growth. Located in the Chao Phya deltaic pla恤， it is built on a fl前， low area only about one and a h缸lf metres above mean sea level. During the peak of the rainy season, particularly when rain coincides IMPACT OF URBANIZATION 89 with high tides, parts of the city are submerged. The low configuration of the city surface not only makes drainage difficult but is also an obstacle to the construction of underpasses, subways and basements. Bangkok's climate is hot and humid, and the average temperature varies only slightly throughout the year. Mean temperatures reach 300 C in the wannest months of April and May and drop to 260C in the so-called coolest months of December and January. Proximity to the sea results in an average annual humidity of 80 per cent, ranging from 50 per cent in January to 90 per cent...