Aceh: History, Politics and Culture

10. Islam in Aceh: Institutions, Scholarly Traditions, and Relations between Ulama and Umara

10 Islam In aceh Institutions, scholarly Traditions, and Relations between Ulama and Umara Hasan Basri1 Experts have yet to make a comprehensive study of Islam in Aceh, despite the fact that Aceh is the part of Indonesia that first came into contact with Islam. Later, Islam spread from Aceh to Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, Maluku, and even Melaka and other territories of contemporary Malaysia. Islam spread primarily by word of mouth as ulama (Muslim religious teachers), traders and professional Islamic missionaries entered regions that had already been touched by Hinduism and Buddhism, mysticism and faith. Efforts to spread the teachings of Islam were gentle and peaceful; the religion passed though trade, persuasion and the conversion of powerful kings, and eventually through marriage as well. This paper attempts to consider Islam in Aceh from historical, sociological and political perspectives. The observations from these three perspectives are based, respectively, on three fundamental facts: first, scholarship about Islam in Aceh is inseparable from the history of Islam’s entrance in that region; second, because of its location along the shipping channels that connect many parts of the world, Aceh is both a home port and a place of transit for many different peoples; and third, politically speaking, Aceh has existed as a sovereign nation, with its own monarchy, since the thirteenth century. From that time onwards, the kingdom of Aceh has forged diplomatic and trade Islam in Aceh 181 networks with many other nations. Before dissecting these connections for analysis however, a general understanding of Aceh is required. The hIsToRy of Islam In aceh Before Islam made its way to Aceh, Aceh had already established trade relations with India, Persia, Arabia, China and several other countries. These economic interactions had significantly influenced the lives of the Acehnese people. From India, for example, came Hinduism which influenced Acehnese culture both directly and indirectly. How great was this influence cannot be known with any great certainty. Though according to Mukti Ali, “the Islamic religion that entered Indonesia was mixed with elements of Hinduism” (Mukti Ali 1964, p. 4). However, this statement would be correct only if we were looking at Islam as practised by the Javanese community. This would not be entirely true for Islam in Aceh. This is because Islam in Aceh was brought in directly by Arab merchants, and in Aceh, the teachings of Hinduism were not as well rooted as they were in Java. Almost all historians say that Aceh is the part of Indonesia where Islam first entered the country. Among experts, however, there is a difference of opinion concerning the year in which this happened. In connection with this, three ideas have developed and gained prominence. First, some claim that Islam gradually came to Indonesia, beginning in the first century AH — that is, the first century of the Islamic calendar or about AD 700–800. These people claim that it came directly from the Arabs. Second is the idea that Islam spread within Indonesia by means of peace, and not by the sword or by force. And third, it is believed that because of Islam’s arrival in Indonesia, learning and high culture have become a part of the Indonesian identity (Ali Hasjmy 1993, pp. 38–39). Regarding Islam’s arrival in Indonesia, Azyumardi Azra acknowledges that, as far as the introduction of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago is concerned, there have been discussion and debate concerning three problems on the subject: first, the question of where Islam was originally introduced; second, the question of who brought it in; and third, the question of when it was brought in. According to Azra, the various theories and discussions that have tried to answer these three questions have not yet been fully successful. This is not only because of the limited data available that could support any particular theory, but also because of the one-sidedness of the various theories (Azyumardi Azra 2004, p. 2). Most Dutch scholars put forward the idea that the origin of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago was the Indian subcontinent, not Persia or Arabia. 182 Hasan Basri The first scholar to propose this theory was Pijnappel. Later, the theory was popularized by Snouck Hurgronje, who stressed the fact that Islam had a strong foothold in several port cities of the Indian subcontinent. They were intermediary points which connected the Middle Eastern merchants with traders from the Indonesian archipelago. Later on, these...