Asian Security Reassessed

8. Conflicts over Natural Resources and the Environment

Conflicts over Natural Resources and the Environment 187 Chapter Eight Conflicts over Natural Resources and the Environment Clevo Wilson and Clem Tisdell INTRODUCTION The need for natural resources has given rise to conflicts in many parts of the world.1 As the World Commission on Environment and Development points out, “nations have often fought to assert or resist control over war materials, energy supplies, land, river basins, sea passages and other key environmental resources”.2 Malaquias3 observes that it is “not accidental that some of the nastiest wars in Africa are being fought in countries richly endowed with natural resources”. While there are no parallel cases in East and Southeast Asia to match the intensity and magnitude of the conflicts in some African countries, many conflicts have arisen either directly or indirectly over the control and use of natural resources.4 The concentration of rich natural resources in outlying parts of countries, especially in large countries with weak provincial administrative structures, can be a major contributor to calls for autonomy or breakaway in some countries. Frequently, political and social disagreements about the sharing of economic benefits of natural resources assume major significance and often exacerbate existing religious, cultural and social tensions. Security of nations may be undermined by internal or external armed conflict or by 08 Asian Security Ch 8.pm65 6/12/06, 2:40 PM 187 188 Clevo Wilson and Clem Tisdell terrorism, as well as by the weakening of economic systems, thereby making nations more vulnerable to attack. Geographic cultural diversity (for example, of ethnic minorities) and geographical inequality in natural resources available within countries and in different regions add to tensions. Furthermore, more economically developed regions and nations, to sustain economic growth, tend to exploit the natural resources and environments of less developed regions and nations.5 Perhaps as a precaution against attack from neighbours, small but resource rich countries such as Brunei spend a larger percentage of their GDP on defense than some of the larger countries such as China, Indonesia and Malaysia.6 This chapter discusses the security issues and conflicts (both external and internal) over natural resources and the environment in East and Southeast Asia. The first section briefly discusses the resources of the region. A map locates some of the natural resources discussed. The second section deals with the conflicts related to the use and control of natural resources in the region. The nature and the magnitude of the conflicts between and within countries are dealt with. The third section discusses the responses and possible remedial action for these conflicts and the fourth section concludes the chapter. OVERVIEW OF SOURCES OF RESOURCE CONFLICT Domestic and international tensions, disputes and conflicts arise over how to manage and distribute a range of natural resources including oil, natural gas, mineral resources, forests, and irrigation water. Conflicts have also arisen from the exploitation of marine resources. Some of the disputes over natural resources and the environment are straightforward zero-sum conflicts while others are far more complex. Many countries in the East and Southeast Asian region share common borders and this inevitably leads to the need to share certain resources, such as water. As a result, tensions and even conflicts can arise in the distribution of these resources. To take the example of water and inland fisheries, tensions may occur due to over-exploitation, the building of barriers such as dams, and pollution due to agriculture.7 Other transboundary problems arise from air pollution resulting from forest fires, burning of fossil fuel and sandstorms arising from deforestation.8 Similar problems exist in the sharing of maritime resources in the region.9 All countries in the East and Southeast Asian region (except Laos and Mongolia) are bordered by the sea and their maritime boundary and 08 Asian Security Ch 8.pm65 6/12/06, 2:40 PM 188 Conflicts over Natural Resources and the Environment 189 Exclusive Economic Zone claims in many instances overlap.10, 11 In such situations disputes arise in sharing resources. Some countries also dispute the control of maritime territories such as islands, reefs and coral cays.12 The natural resources within the maritime areas of East and Southeast Asia are large and valuable and cover the Indian and Pacific oceans. The potential economic value of new mineral discoveries has a maritime dimension, for some of the off-shore zone claims include oil and natural gas.13 The desire to exploit these...