Ascendant Peace in the Four Seas: Drama and the Qing Imperial Court

Conclusion: Peking Opera and a New Political Focus

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese drama underwent fundamental changes. Kunqu, which had occupied the mainstream of elite taste for several centuries, gradually declined and was replaced by the newly emerging Peking Opera.1 The imperial court played a vital role in the formation of the Peking Opera, accidentally and institutionally. The downgrading of the Nanfu to the Shengpingshu in 1827 largely contributed to the significant growth in interaction between the palace and commercial theatres, and finally resulted in the transformation of Peking Opera from a humble regional opera to an art form enjoyed by all classes well beyond the capital. Kangxi had been appalled at the decline of traditional kunqu in the theatres and warned the personnel in the palace to resist being polluted by changes in practice outside. Due to the segregation of palace actors from commercial performances, the palace troupes were able to maintain the “purity of the tradition.” There was a significant difference between drama performance inside and outside palace at this time. The policy of only allowing yi and kun operas to be performed in the palace was followed, in theory at least, until the last decades of the Qing. Qianlong admired and imitated his grandfather in many ways and wanted to maintain Kangxi’s artistic preferences. However, his extravagant and ostentatious style was in contradiction to the principles of traditional Chinese drama. His fancy for novelty led to an interest, indeed a fascination, beyond kun and yi dramas. On the occasion of the celebration of his eightieth birthday in 1790, the Lianghuai Salt Administration sent four Hui opera troupes to the capital. This is generally considered the first step in the development of Peking Opera. Peking Opera did not reach its maturity until several decades later, during the 1840s. Joshua Goldstein approached the construction of Peking Opera within the context of colonial modernity.2 I would stress, Conclusion Peking Opera and a New Political Focus 260 Ascendant Peace in the Four Seas however, that the formation of Peking Opera, although not necessarily its development during the 1920s and 1930s, came about with the active participation of the imperial court and the elite classes. In the twentieth century, as Peking Opera reached its heyday, it continued to draw on traditional drama. At the same time, newly complied Peking operas reflected many aspects of new political and social realities. The legacy of Qianlong in drama and other entertainment While Qianlong’s campaign to censor drama during the 1780s did not make any impact on the development of various types of drama, his artistic tastes did. The development from the traditional expression of abstract symbolism to visual splendour bore the personal marks of Qianlong. From Qianlong to the end of the dynasty, drama changed considerably in the commercial theatres, despite various bans from the court. In the imperial domain, however, ritual drama followed the model of previous dynasties and was little altered. Even before the restriction on dramas other than kun and yi was relaxed in the late Qing, drama as entertainment in the court could no longer maintain its elitist standards. Changes were quietly happening under Qianlong. Traditional Chinese drama was characterised by abstract symbolism rather than realistic stage effects. Qianlong’s approach to the theatre was technically more demanding. Martial arts, three-tiered stages, hundreds, even thousands, of actors on the stage at one time, fanciful props, and realistic backdrops the incorporation of such elements challenged the basic principles of Chinese drama. Costumes constituted a visual language and a form of symbolism. Their textiles, colours, embroidery, and designs were specifically designed to suit the characters in the dramas. Under Qianlong, however, even such basic principles were sacrificed for the sake of over-indulgent visual splendour. The costumes of poor people, for example, were also decorated with gold embroidery, hardly reflecting the nature or social status of the characters concerned. This trend spread to the commercial theatres. The task of making the costumes was the responsibility of the Textile Commission in Jiangnan, and of course they exerted themselves to please the emperor. Even now, although the silk fabric stored in the palace has faded, the embroidery, which used genuine gold thread, still glitters.3 The Conclusion 261 trend of using lavish costumes already existed in the early Qing among the salt merchants and rich officials, but the scale of it and the concentration of wealth could not compare with the imperial court. It...