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2. Belgian federalism: A cursory overview
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2. Belgian federalism: A cursory overview [34.230.84.106] Project MUSE (2024-03-19 10:29 GMT) – 57 – 38. Compromis à la belge. On the whole, Belgium’s federal structure must be understood as a ‘complex set of compromises that was the product of a series of protracted political negotiations’126 . These negotiations dealt primarily with Flemish aspirations for (cultural) autonomy, Flemish fear of ‘Frenchification’ of the Brussels periphery, Walloon aspirations for economic autonomy, and minority protections, both for the Francophones in Belgium as a whole, and for the Flemish inhabitants of the ‘Frenchified’ Brussels periphery127 . The negotiations proceeded in stages: up till now five grand packages of institutional reforms have been adopted. The first package in 1970 created balances in light of the establishment of Belgium’s two kinds of federated entities, notably the (Cultural) Communities and Regions. The second state reform in 1980 expanded the competences of the Communities and established those of the (two large) Regions in a special law (SLIR). The third package in 1988 126 Robert Mnookin & AlainVerbeke, Persistent nonviolent conflict with no reconciliation: the Flemish andWalloons in Belgium, 72 Law and Contemporary Problems 151, 167 (2009). See Hugues Dumont, Etat, Nation et Constitution. De la théorie du droit public aux conditions de viabilité de l’Etat belge in Belgitude et crise de l’Etat belge 73, 108 (Hugues Dumont et al. eds. 1989) (‘Belgian federalism is perceived as a mode of pacification and not as a political project’); Alen, supra note 38, at p. 19 (noticing that there was neither a true ‘legal’ project: ‘if there is one thing missing from all consecutive institutional reforms, it was legal theoretical analysis’); Jan Velaers, België is een federale Staat, samengesteld uit de gemeenschappen en de gewesten (art. 1 G.G.W.): een commentaar in het licht van federale theorieën in Belgium: Quo Vadis, supra note 38, at p. 41 et seq. Also see Luc Huyse, Over Politiek (2003) (explaining how these negotiations have more or less worked in the Belgian consociational model (Lijphart) of democracy to mitigate two foundational discords in Belgian politics, ie the religious one and the economic one, but not (quite to the contrary) the third, linguistic one; cf. André Alen, ‘De tien geboden van de Staatshervorming’ in Zeven knelpunten na zeven jaar staatshervorming 5, 5-7 (André Alen & Louis-Paul Suetens eds. 1988). Also see Wilfried Dewachter, De dualistische identiteit van de Belgische Maatschappij 17 (nuancing this consociationalism by emphasizing the importance of political parties in these negotiations). But see Paul Vermeulen, Advies, 1975 TBP 417, 420 et seq. (arguing, from a Foucauldian perspective, that consociationalism does not work in Belgium, because of Francohpone dominance). Compare Frank Delmartino & Kris Deschouwer, Grondslagen van het Federalisme in Federalisme. Staatkundig, politiek en economisch 9, 24-29 (Interuniversitair Studiecentrum voor Federalisme ed. 1994) (arguing that consociationalism is a specific form of federalist thinking) with André Alen, Het Belgisch Federalisme in ibid. at p. 178-181 (describing how consociationalism in Belgium has led to political elitism, which both creates and is rooted in a whole set of other societal evolutions that can be deemed problematic). 127 Alen & Muylle, supra note 14, at p. 287-289; also see Mnookin & Verbeke, supra note 126, at p. 167-172 (also mentioning the growing lack of solidarity and the issue of internal transfers). For a relevant nuance, with an emphasis on the problem that Brussels has always constituted, see Wouter Pas, Federalisme met gemeenschappen én gewesten: een tussenstand van moeilijkheden, mogelijkheden en voorstellen, 2011 TBP 486, 488 (‘[e]ssential is that the creation of Communities was necessary because of the specific situation of the bilingual language area. In fact, it is only here that Belgian federalism needed a correction or a modification of its fundamentally territorial character’). Belgian federalism: a cursory overview – 58 – fully transferred the competence on education to the Communities, and further expanded the competences of the Regions. The fourth state reform package in 1993 above all institutionally updated the renewed allocation of competences and the fifth package in 2001 expanded the competences of the Regions and refinanced the federated entities to some extent128 . The sixth package of state reforms has been politically ratified and partially awaits legal implementation: it promises institutional reform, further transfers of competences and financial reform and should for the largest part be implemented by the 2014 elections129 . 39. Fundamentals of federalism. The protracted series of negotiations have resulted in an idiosyncratic form of federalism. One could wonder now, whether federalism is not always in...