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Romanian Liberalism (1821–1866) Keith Hitchins This paper investigates the evolution of the Romanian concept of liberalism between 1821 and 1866, from Tudor Vladimirescu’s movement in Wallachia to the creation of the Cărvunari Constitution in Moldavia and up to the promulgation of the first Constitution of united Romania in 1866.1 It was during this half century that the coherent expression of liberal principles emerged, a process that was accompanied by and dependent to a certain degree upon the changes undertaken by the Romanian socio-political language. This period served as a launching platform for the concept of liberalism. The investigation of the political ideas that have come to be known under the term of liberalism must include a study of the meaning of the concepts liberal and libertate (Romanian for liberal and liberty or freedom ) which are two fundamental components of liberalism. In this sense, my main aim is to examine the shifts of meaning undergone by the concept of liberalism between 1821 and 1866 and to trace its evolution and its place in everyday language. I will also tackle the issue of why and how these changes occurred, who made them, and what could be the relation between socio-political changes and the concepts and words that were used. For instance, what is the meaning of the passage from slobozenie to libertate in order to designate the concepts of freedom or liberty? In general, the liberalism of the modern society is an ideology which emphasizes individuals’ civil and political rights. It sustains citizens’ fun1 I am particularly grateful to my research assistant, Pompilia Burcică, for her invaluable assistance in writing this paper. I am also grateful to my friend and colleague Victor Neumann for the close reading of this text and the suggestions he provided. 108 Keith Hitchins damental freedoms—of conscience, free expression and association—and insists that the state should not intervene in the exercise of these rights, with the exception of situations when it must preempt possible causes of prejudices. Broadly speaking, liberals are opposed to the political institutions and social relations of the old regime and they make efforts to introduce fundamental reforms adapted to the specific locale and temporal conditions. They sustain political freedom and equality before the law, they are against the defenders of privileges, and insist that the government adhere to a fundamental law, a constitution that would guarantee citizens’ rights and ensure the individuals’ protection in the face of free will. Liberals also support the investigation of controversial aspects and the need to observe differences of opinion; they believe that truth and its meaning will come to light by means of open debates that will lead to a better society. Many liberals are opposed to the state’s artificial intervention to economic problems and sustain the free exercise of market laws. Other liberals believe that the functioning of capitalism should be regulated in order to protect the weak and offer them equal chances. The difference between the former group of classical liberals and the latter group, most often referred to by the terms of equalitarian liberals, suggests the difficulty to reach a commonly accepted definition of liberalism. The concept has been changing as the political and economic circumstances and the intellectual climate have evolved. Thus, up to the middle of the nineteenth century, liberalism embraced doctrines such as free trade. Towards the end of the century, the new liberalism considered that the state should intervene in the economy in order to improve the material condition of the poor and allow them to enjoy basic citizen freedoms. Another example would be anti-clericalism: in some countries, such as nineteenth-century France, this was a component of the liberal creed, while in others, such as Romania, it merely kept a low profile. The origins and nature of liberalism continue to draw the attention of scholars from various disciplines and represent another source of heated controversies.2 Scholars of liberalism particularly focus on the main representatives of liberal ideas, such as John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Benjamin Constant, Alexis de Tocqueville, John Stuart 2 A still valid study on this issue is Guido de Ruggiero’s A History of European Liberalism . Challenging questions in view of a comparative approach are also present in Lothar Gall, “Liberalismus und bürgerliche Gesellschaft: zu Charakter und Entwicklung der liberalen Bewegung in Deutschland,” 324–56; Leontovitsch, Geschichte der Liberalismus in Russland; Ýnsel, “Türkiye’de Liberalizm kavramýným soycizgisi,” 41–74. [3.140...

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