National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements

Adam Mickiewicz: Prophecies

ADAM MICKIEWICZ: “PROPHECIES” Title: Litania pielgrzymska (Pilgrim’s litany), in Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage); and Dziady, część trzecia (The Forefathers, part 3) Originally published: Księgi narodu polskiego in the form of a prayer-book was published in Paris, 1832; the French translation appeared in 1833. Dziady was written in Dresden in 1832 and published in Paris the same year in the 4th volume of Mickiewicz’s Poezje. Language: Polish Modern Polish editions: Księgi narodu i pielgrzymstwa polskiego, ed. Stanis- ław Pigoń (Cracow: Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 1926); Dziady: część 3 (Warszawa: PIW, 1995). English editions: Poems by Adam Mickiewicz , edited by George Rapall Noyes (New York: Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America, 1944), pp. 414–415 and 291–294; Adam Mickiewicz, The Great Improvisation, translated by Louise Varèse (New York: Voyages, 1956). About the author See: Adam Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz, pp. 211–212. Context In their works on ‘native’ themes, either political and philosophical treaties or literary works, Polish émigrés often referred to the world of politics, situating the Polish case within the framework of a universal struggle for freedom . Thus, Polish romantic literature in many ways functioned as the metapolitical manifesto of a democratic ideology. The following works by Mickiewicz represent a literary reaction to the failure of the November Uprising (1830–1831) and the loss of autonomy of the Congress Kingdom. Księgi narodu i pielgrzymstwa polskiego opened a new phase in the evolution of Mickiewicz’s ideology. The text gained fame as the most notable ex- ADAM MICKIEWICZ: PROPHECIES 409 pression of Polish romantic messianism: the idea of Poland as a ‘Christ of nations.’ Księgi… was intentionally phrased as a ‘national Gospel’ and also played the role of a ‘national catechism.’ In December 1832 it was published twice in France, and several months later it was also published in Galicia in an underground edition. Księgi... can also be read as Mickiewicz’s reaction to the political conflicts between the various groups of Polish émigrés. The poet supported neither the conservative faction of Hôtel Lambert, led by Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, nor the radical Polish Democratic Society, who were preparing a social revolution and appealing to the broader masses of townspeople and peasants (see Henryk Kamieński, Vital truths of the Polish nation). In contrast to their strictly political programs, he formulated a transcendental vision, underpinned by a democratic conviction of the brotherhood and future cooperation of European nations. To strengthen the biblical reference of his poetic proclamation, Mickiewicz turned to the language of the seventeenthcentury vernacular Bible translation. Curiously, the harshest criticism of Mickiewicz’s Messianic poems came from two diametrically opposed perspectives: the radical democrats and the Pope. Both repudiated the combination of social radicalism with the Gospel. While the radicals were antagonized by the conservative and religious motifs, the conservatives rejected his instrumentalization of religious symbolism for a democratic agenda. However, Mickiewicz was not alone here: the Christian socialist doctrine of Felicité Lamennais (1782–1854) enjoyed great popularity among Polish émigrés. The idea of Poland as the ‘Christ of nations’ is the central motif of the text. However, it is noteworthy that Mickiewicz’s messianism was not restricted to ‘national martyrdom,’ as was the case with the doctrine put forward by Andrzej Towiański. This messianism was closely related to Joachim Lelewel’s philosophy of history. In Lelewel’s view, the Poles were per definitionem the representatives of democratic values, and were supposed to play a crucial role in contemporary conflicts between liberalism and conservatism, this latter being embodied in the Holy Alliance. Similarly, Poland in Mickiewicz’s poems was not only suffering as Christ, but its destiny was also to bring salvation to all the nations. The hope for the universal war for the freedom of oppressed peoples envisioned by Mickiewicz was very far from the millenarist doctrine of Towiański’s sect. Be this as it may, the popularity of Księgi… diminished after the 1863 uprising and with the emergence of new, positivistic ideas formulated by conservatives from Cracow and liberals from Warsaw , both of whom rejected any violent action against the partitioning powers 410 NATIONAL HEROISM (see: Józef Szujski, Some truths from our history, and Aleksander Świętochowski , Political directives). The same idea of Poland as a ‘Christ of nations’ is present in Mickiewicz’s most well...