Communicating with the Spirits

Non sunt nisi phantasiae et imaginationes: A Medieval Attempt at Explaining Demons

NON SUNT NISI PHANTASIAE ET IMAGINATIONES: A MEDIEVAL ATTEMPT AT EXPLAINING DEMONS RENATA MIKOLAJCZYK For his master and brother, Louis from Lewenbergh, forever loyal Witelo plebanus. You ask me to write about things difficult to grasp, about the main reason of repentance in men and about the nature of demons , according to my understanding, that is following the principles of philosophy, I apprehend. Although I have been neither a student nor an expert in the science, which deals with difficult questions and truths of theology, still, as your wish has always been an order for me and shall remain so forever, I will not refuse your request. I write what I could understand syllogistically, from the principles of science I know, however few and imperfectly I comprehend them (Witelo, 1979, p. 161). We are in Padua, it is Easter of 1268.1 Witelo, a famous Silesian scholar, alumnus of the Universities in Paris and Padua, addresses his friend, back in Poland, dedicating him a treatise, devoted to two intriguing questions: the predisposition of men towards goodness and the nature of demons.2 Let me summarize the content of this interesting letter: The first part opens with a long exposition of the vegetative, sensible and intellectual powers of the human soul. It serves to show that a properly functioning hierarchy of these potentiae, where the highest intellectual faculties dominate the lower ones, presupposes the recognition of what is good and wrong and therefore leads to repentance and goodness. Otherwise, that is when the senses take over the soul, a man is no longer human but becomes equal with the animals whose operations depend entirely on the COMMUNICATING WITH THE SPIRITS 41 two lower faculties: vegetative and sensible. Thus the inclination towards goodness is inherent in man’s soul and, although he commits sins, he is disposed to recognize his faults and do penitence. The section dealing with demons (most relevant for our discussions here) starts with an argument of epistemological character. Witelo, again, underlines the difficulty of the problem and complains of the lack of relevant sources. Among philosophers, only Plato confronted the matter but, according to Witelo, the little he wrote is invalid, anyway.3 Just like in the opening lines I quoted, Witelo acknowledges the distinction between two possible approaches : theological and philosophical. Insisting on his being a philosopher and not a theologian he declares to investigate the problem “secundum viam naturalem,” that is, according to the principles of natural philosophy he masters. However, the case of demons involves a deeper contradiction. There are propositions pertaining to religion, which are unverifiable with philosophical means. Such is the belief in fallen angels, demanded by faith but incompatible with the natural order of the universe, as known by Witelo.4 The only way to resolve this tension is by accepting the truths of faith, as present in the Bible and the Church authorities without questioning them. Thus, Witelo is compelled to accept the story of Lucifer and other fallen angels, nevertheless, trying to provide further information, concerning demons, within the reach of philosophical investigation.5 He first considers the etymology of the term demon and its original Greek meaning which he translates in Latin as sciens that is “having knowledge.” People, however, usually refer to demons in the sense of cacodaemones, malevolent and deform apparitions. These, Witelo classifies into two groups: apparentia et nihil agentia (apparitions that do not act) and agentia res alias naturales et raro apparentia (those acting through other natural objects but appearing only rarely).6 The first group includes cases in which distortions of sense perception , caused by various illnesses, inspire false visions interpreted erroneously as actual demonic appearances. The very detailed discussion of these phenomena, by way of a medical approach is, to my mind, the most interesting fragment of Witelo’s 42 NON SUNT NISI PHANTASIAE ET IMAGINATIONES treatise (Witelo, 1979, pp. 169–73). Witelo analyzes, one by one, the main diseases recognized by medieval medicine as affecting the brain and shows their impact on sense perception and hence on the appearance of phantasms. In each case, he explains the pathology of the given illness, in accordance with the current medical theory and deduces from there the process of formation of visual and auditory illusions. Frenzy (phrenesis) is described as caused by a swelling in the brain due to the inflammation of cholera and the ebullition of blood, rising to the brain. Alternatively...