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The Contribution of the Group Process to Successful Project Planning John A. KERNAGHAN and Robert A. COOKE Managers have been encouraged in recent years to rely on groups rather than individuals when facing judgmental decisions in the planning process. Groups are more likely than individuals to develop high quality plans that are also accepted by members particularly when decisions are characterized by uncertainty and multiple alternatives are availablel,2 . However, although some hypotheses have been advanced to link research on group process with models of planning3,4,5 little empirical research has been conducted to identify the specific types of groups and processes that most effectively facilitate planning activities. This is particularly true of the literature on project planning (and project selection) in the context of research and development efforts. While the “be havioral” aspects of project management are often mentioned6 , most theoretical perspectives, such as “integrated matrix management” recently outlined by Wall7 , do not discuss the role small groups can play in successfully planning and implementing project objectives. The project team is often seen as a “traditional” leader-directed group in which the project manager is “solely” responsible for planning, organizing and controlling project resources and for attaining project objectives. When the contribution of group processes to project management is recognized, it is usually presented in the form of a case study. Thamia and Woods8 , for instance, describe an “Accelerated Innovation System” used in the R&D laboratory of a major multinational corporation which was based on “Small Creativity Group (s)”9 . Each group followed a general agenda consist ing of setting objectives and sub-objectives, finding alternative ways of achieving these objectives, making a choice while holding other options in reserve, reviewing the choice against objectives and making a firm decision and preparing for implementation. Working within the general agenda, the groups made use of five techniques: potential problem analysis, attribute listing, synectics, brain-storming, and structured discussion, of which potential problem analysis proved to be the most successful. The use of groups and group techniques proved very useful for this company in identifying, selecting, and planning projects. Another case study/simulation reported by Davies and Pearson10 describes the potential application of group problem-solving techniques to project selection. Project selection is seen as a “process which includes all the inter- actions between people which, if managed well, can lead to very positive results in the areas of problem formation, idea generation, commitment, planning and review”11 . The emphasis is placed on looking for relevance, highlighting uncertainties, identifying potential problems, getting commitment for implementation, and encouraging maximum group interaction. 684 John A. KERNAGHAN and Robert A. COOKE However, despite these two selected case studies, and the successes reported at Litton Industries12 and TRW Systemsl3 , we still need a more substantial base of empirical research results to identify the specific types of groups and group processes that most effectively facilitate project planning activities. The aim of this paper is to provide such empirical data. This research focuses on that segment of the R&D process termed project planning (see Figure 1). If we conceive of the flow of a project through the R&D process as starting with project proposals, followed by project selection and evaluation, then project planning is the crucial next step before the actual implementation, review and completion of projects. Project planning involved the examination of planning assumptions, risk assessment, setting objectives , allocating resources, scheduling and establishing checkpoints to monitor project implementation. The basic purpose of this study is to address issues associated with group participation in the planning phase of the R&D process. Theoretical Background The general management literature discusses three different approaches to utilizing groups in the planning process: A focus on the individual, such as a traditional leader-directed group14 , or, closely related, a strategy of identifying the “best member”15 ; nominal group techniques16 ; and interacting groups17,18,19 The first approach, exemplified by typical leader-directed groups and current variations such as Miner’s20 “Leaderskill-oriented group”, requires that the leader is either the “best member” of the group or able to identify the best member. A variation proposed by Yetton and Bottger2l instructs that the whole group selects its best member prior to task work and that individual subsequently becomes the group’s “leader”. All variations of this approach assume that every group has a member who possesses the optimum combination of knowledge, rational and interpersonal skills necessary to accomplish a task. In the case of project planning, this individual would be expected to arrive at a plan...

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