Spies, Patriots, and Traitors: American Intelligence in the Revolutionary War

Chapter 7: Washington Establishes His Intelligence Capabilities

CHAPTER 7 Washington Establishes His Intelligence Capabilities While Jay was establishing his counterintelligence operations against Tory groups, Washington was quickly being pushed out of the New York City area by a series of British attacks. By mid-summer, the Continental Army had been forced off Long Island and was pushed into lower Manhattan. In mid-September, Washington was able to momentarily stop the British advance at the Battle of Harlem Heights. But not for long. By late September 1776, Washington’s only option was to react to British movements in the manner best suited to saving his remaining forces. While the army had fought with some discipline and even managed a small victory, it was defeated at the Battle of White Plains in late October and forced most of the army across the river into New Jersey. Only Fort Washington, a poorly constructed defensive position located on high ground on the Manhattan side of the Hudson River, remained in American hands. Luckily for Washington, Howe once again halted his advance to reorganize and resupply his troops. However, in mid-November, British forces again outflanked American positions and attacked the fort, forcing surrender of almost three thousand American soldiers. A few days later, the British captured Fort Lee, on the New Jersey side of the Hudson. While the garrison escaped, they left behind badly needed military supplies. The British assault continued aggressively, and Gen. Lord Cornwallis reached Newark, New Jersey, on November 28. On December 7, Washington made a strategic retreat, crossed the Delaware River, and 127 Washington Establishes His Intelligence Capabilities established a defensive position for his demoralized and suffering army, which had dwindled to fewer than three thousand men. The next day, Cornwallis took the city of Trenton, but there Howe stopped and began arranging his army into winter quarters. Had he continued to chase Washington, it could well have meant total disaster for the American army. With the end of the British campaign of 1776, Washington and the army were in great despair and fearful of the future.1 But Washington was about to take the offensive, and solid intelligence was there to help him succeed. By mid-December 1776, Washington had instructed his commanders to develop local reporting sources to gather intelligence on the enemy in New Jersey.2 Solid intelligence on the enemy can be a great equalizer for a smaller force in combat. Its most obvious benefit is accurately identifying enemy locations and positions. This tactical intelligence is of great importance to the infantryman who must face the enemy. However, it is strategic intelligence that wins wars or, better yet, avoids them. Its impact extends well beyond a specific battle. The intelligence that gave Washington the confidence to attack Trenton and Princeton in late December 1776 and early January 1777 was to have a strategic effect in the war. It enabled him to save his army from dissolution and keep it in the field, at least for that winter. In mid-December, for the first time since departing the Boston area, Washington had accurate, well-corroborated intelligence on the enemy forces at Trenton and Princeton, including their strengths, their defensive postures, their recent combat histories, and their fatigue levels. He also knew the personalities and attitudes of the enemy commanders. This gave him the confidence to undertake a series of attacks in which his weak and still poorly organized force had a solid chance for victory. That is the key to strategic military intelligence : The leadership has to feel confident of victory and then take decisive action. Luckily, and probably because of the leadership at the regiment level and below, Washington’s small force was composed of men still willing to fight. Once the British forces settled into winter quarters spread around New Jersey, they found themselves in much more hostile territory than they had experienced in the New York City area. The military situation was similar in environment to any occupying force in an insurgent’s territory. While the British did have some supporters and there were others willing to cooperate for personal gain, the Americans controlled most of the countryside. That said, Trenton was a town with a strong Tory presence. However, the New Jersey Militia, which was well armed (including cannon), well led for the most part, and willing to fight on its own terms, made life difficult for the British 128 CHAPTER...