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Chapter VII
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226 u chapter vii u On the Duty of Man Concerning Speech§1. We will now turn to hypothetical precepts, which have this name not only because they presuppose concomitant agreements and laws on keeping faith but mainly because it is easy to derive them from the general precept concerning the preservation of human equality and its four rivulets, like theses from a hypothesis.§2. Thus, you will not be surprised if here and in the other chapters where the reasons for axioms will be provided, I will often only briefly draw attention to the above or just apply these precepts to particular conclusions. At the same time, in the individual chapters I will mainly pay attention to the purpose of the particular matters which are discussed because this is of the greatest importance in moral matters.§3. Concerning speech, however, we need first to say something about its definition and origin, before we provide the precepts concerning the duty of humans in speaking.§4. Speech is an articulate sound by which humans communicate their thoughts to each other and reason among themselves.§5. Speech is, however, described as an articulate sound, to distinguish it from voice in general and from sound. Sound is whatever the ears hear as a result of the collision between material bodies. Voice is a sound uttered by animals. Speech is proper to humans. Beasts, however, usually have an book ii 227 inarticulate, very rarely an articulate, voice or rather a voice that is halfway between articulate and inarticulate—parrots, for example, etc. But speech is always articulate.§6. I leave aside the distinction between voice as a signal of something pleasant and unpleasant and speech as a signal of something useful and harmful, honest and despicable. This is already implied by the previous distinction, although I would prefer it if the good and the useful were omitted here or extended to voice as well as speech.§7. Thus, speech is specific to humans. It distinguishes them from beasts and reflects humans’ use of reason, as even Aristotle agrees. Cicero’s words deserve to be noted. Nature persuades humans by the force of reason to unite with each other, to use a common language and live in a society.34 Moreover, the bond of society is reason and speech, which by teaching, learning, communicating, discussing, and judging unites humans with each other and joins them in a kind of natural society.35§8. You see here that reason, speech, and society are linked to each other by Cicero. Our observations above on the explanation of sociality illustrate this further.36§9. When Paul, the teacher of the Gentiles, turns them away from lies and urges them to accept the truth, he produces no other reason than that humans are united by their fellowship with each other, not physically, of course, but morally and socially.37§10. The primary aim of speech, therefore, is to allow humans to reason with each other; reasoning, however, requires tranquillity. The general 34. See Cicero, On Duties [De officiis], ed. M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), bk. I, chap. 12. 35. Ibid., chap. 50. 36. See Institutes, bk. I, chap. iv, §§52ff. 37. Ephesians 4:25. [52.23.201.145] Project MUSE (2024-03-29 14:00 GMT) 228 institutes of divine jurisprudence precept concerning the duty of speakers, therefore, is: use speech and the other signs of the mind to further common tranquillity.§11. But there is no doubt about that. You surely desire more specific axioms, which I shall provide immediately by showing the difference between speech and the other signs of the mind. This difference is to be found in the term voice.§12. The signs of things are either natural or arbitrary. The former are derived from natural properties of things and pertain to natural philosophers or medics. Thus, smoke is a sign of fire, dawn of the coming day, pallor of disease or love, etc., flight of fear.§13. Arbitrary signs are those having meaning on the basis of human decisions that are not made by individuals in isolation but are based on general consent.§14. The purpose of all these signs is to communicate the thoughts of one person to another. But man cannot look into the mind of another man, and the natural signs of the mind are very few. They are also often suppressed by those who are skillful...