[ 247 ] Notes The following abbreviations are used throughout the notes: DDRS Declassified Document Retrieval System NARA National Archives and Record Administration NSA National Security Archive PED Peace Education Division of AFSC (archive division) SCPC Swarthmore College Peace Collection (archive) WHS Wisconsin Historical Society (archive) Introduction 1. Donald Caswell and Rick Campbell, “Touring Nicaragua: A Soldier’s Story,” Zelo Magazine (Winter Park, FL), Summer 1988, Wisconsin Historical Society (WHS) archive, Veterans for Peace (VFP) files, box 1, folder 6; Garry Duffy, “Peace Advocate Recounts Events That Led Him to His Current Beliefs,” Green Valley News, June 1, 1988, 1, 9, ibid.; and Michael Greenwood, “After a Night in Jail, Gandall Is at UConn,” The Daily Campus (University of Connecticut), Feb. 28, 1989, 1, ibid. 2. Ambassador Carlos Tünnermann, letter to Bill Gandall, Dec. 7, 1987, WHS, VFP files, box 1, folder 6. 3. Martin Tolchin, “Key House Member Fears U.S. Breaks Law on Nicaragua,” New York Times, Apr. 14, 1983, A1. 4. Kenneth A. Briggs, “Episcopal Bishop Calls U.S. Latin Policy ‘Illegal and Immoral,’ ” New York Times, Apr. 23, 1984, A9. 5. Stephen Kinzer, “Gift-Laden Ship Docks in Nicaragua,” New York Times, July 28, 1984, 3. 6. Cynthia Arnson, Crossroads: Congress, the President, and Central America, 1976–1993 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), ix. [ 248 ] Notes to Pages 3–6 7. The 100,000 figure was cited by Nicaraguan ambassador to the United States Carlos Tünnermann in a letter to the editor published in the New York Times, Apr. 26, 1986; also in Marcos Membreño Idiáquez, “Whither U.S. Solidarity with Nicaragua?” Envío, no. 189 (Apr. 1997). Envío newsletters are located at the Instituto de Historia de Nicaragua y Centroamérica, in Managua, and are now available online at www.envio.org. 8. At least sixteen books and dissertations have been written on the Sanctuary Movement alone. See books by Ignatius Bau, Ann Crittenden, Hilary Cunningham, Miriam Davidson , Renny Golden and Michael McConnell, Robin Lorentzen, Gary MacEoin (editor), Judith McDaniel, Elma L. Otter and Dorothy F. Pine, Dick Simpson and Clinton Stockwell , and Robert Tomsho; and dissertations by Jeanne Clark, Susan Coutin, Anne Marie Hildreth, Rachel Ovryn-Rivera, and Angela Stout. 9. Melvin Small, “Influencing the Decision Makers: The Vietnam Experience,” Journal of Peace Research 24, no. 2 (1987): 185–97. See also William LeoGrande and Philip Brenner, “The House Divided: Ideological Polarization over Aid to the Nicaraguan ‘Contras,’” Legislative Studies Quarterly 18, no. 1 (Feb. 1993): 105–36. 10. Lt. Col. Oliver North, “U.S. Political/Military Strategy for Nicaragua” (Plan to Overthrow the Sandinista Government), July 15, 1985, reprinted in Peter Kornbluh and Malcolm Byrne, eds., The Iran-Contra Scandal: The Declassified History (New York: New Press, 1993), 50. 11. I have found 284 books with at least 50 pages devoted to the Contra War. The Central America movement and various aspects thereof are examined in the following studies: Andrew Battista, “Unions and Cold War Foreign Policy in the 1980s: The National Labor Committee, the AFL-CIO, and Central America” (Diplomatic History, 2002); Edward T. Brett, “The Attempts of Grassroots Religious Groups to Change U.S. Policy toward CentralAmerica :TheirMethods,Successes,andFailures”(JournalofChurchandState,August 1991); Ross Gelbspan, Break-Ins, Death Threats, and the FBI: The Covert War against the Central American Movement (1991); Van Gosse, “‘The North American Front’: Central American Solidarity in the Reagan Era” (The Year Left, 1988); Gosse, “Active Engagement: The Legacy of Central America Solidarity” (NACLA Report on the Americas, March/ April 1995); Sharon E. Nepstad, Convictions of the Soul: Religion, Culture, and Agency in the Central America Solidarity Movement (2004); Héctor Perla, “Sí Nicaragua Veñcio, El Salvador Veñcera: Central American Agency in the Creation of the U.S.-Central American Peace and Solidarity Movement” (Latin American Research Review, 2008); Christian Smith, Resisting Reagan: The U.S. Central America Peace Movement (1996); and Robert E. Surbrug, Beyond Vietnam: The Politics of Protest in Massachusetts, 1974–1990 (2009). 12. Of the eighty-seven individuals interviewed by this author, twenty-three were directors, staff persons, or board members of national organizations during the 1980s; forty-five were local/state organizers and activists; seventeen were Americans who had lived and worked in Nicaragua for extended periods of time; two were legislative aides and one was a member of Congress; and ten were Nicaraguan, of whom seven were FSLN officials . (The numbers add up to more than eighty-seven because some individuals had more than one role...