The Jay Treaty Debate, Public Opinion, and the Evolution of Early American Political Culture

Chapter 3 - The Firestorm and the Counterattack: First Soundings in the Public Debate

71 The฀Firestorm฀and฀the฀Counterattack฀ First Soundings in the Public Debate Town฀ meeting—treaty!” the handbill screamed, begging Philadelphia’s residents to take notice. “citizens, assemble at the State-House, on Thursday Afternoon, the 23 instant, at 5 o’clock, then and there to discuss the Momentous Question, viz: Are the People the Legitimate Fountain of Government. . . . Attend! Your rights are invaded!”1 Those who attended the July 23 State House meeting “considered and unanimously฀adopted” a series of resolutions condemning the treaty and appointed a committee to prepare a memorial to President George Washington “respectfully but forcibly conveying the sentiments of the City of Philadelphia.”2 Two days later a large crowd assembled to cheer the reading of the anti-treaty memorial, which argued that the treaty, among other shortcomings, did not provide for the fair settlement of the outstanding differences with Great Britain and harmed U.S. relations with France. The memorial closed with the request that Washington “evince an exalted attachment to the principles of the Constitution . . . and an undiminished zeal to advance the prosperity and happiness of your constituents” by refusing to ratify the treaty.3 In meetings like these held throughout the country citizens turned out to hear and jeer the treaty. They listened to attacks on the measure, its negotiator, the administration that sponsored the mission, and the Senate that approved it. These meetings were often large, sometimes contentious, and always exciting, as they represented huge steps in the evolution of popular political participation. As citizens attended out-of-doors meetings, signed petitions, and read, discussed, and debated the printed versions of 3 “ 72฀฀฀chapter฀three the treaty and the extensive newspaper commentaries on it, they became political actors on a scale not seen since the Revolution. With its increased involvement and growing presence, the public—or, more precisely, an imprecisely defined “public opinion”—was courted by both sides in the treaty debate. Not for the first time, but to a degree never previously seen, there was a widespread recognition on all sides of the crucial need to inform, persuade, and mobilize the public, and—once constructed as desired—to swing public opinion into the service of one position or the other. Appeals were made by both sides through a variety of means. All adversaries were aware that the battle over the treaty would be fought primarily in the arena of public opinion, and that to triumph in such a contest required using measures beyond the usual operating procedures. Because the treaty dealt with such clearly significant issues, the struggle over its passage became much more than a perfunctory exercise in public appeals. Indeed, the stakes were so self-evidently important to both sides that they justified what the participants themselves sometimes regarded as extraordinary actions. Some of these measures were undertaken only because necessity overrode discomfort with new practices, because the need to secure vital interests trumped the fear of the unfamiliar in the evolving politics of public opinion. The first stage of the treaty debate took place during the summer and early fall of 1795. Following upon some anticipatory behind-the-scenes maneuvering, the July 1, 1795, publication of the treaty sparked the actual public debate. There was, first, a relatively brief but fierce contest to obtain—or discourage—a ratifying presidential signature on the treaty recently approved by the Senate. During this crucial six-week period, public opinion was being shaped by both sides so that it might be brought to bear on President Washington. Once word got out that the president had signed the treaty in mid-August, both supporters and opponents would regroup and plan for the next phase of the contest, while the public , stirred to such passions during the summer and soon to be aroused again, settled into a less turbulent fall and winter. But the calm was an illusion. Forces were gathering for one last fight on the floor of the House of Representatives, in the streets, and in the newspapers. This chapter explores that first stage, the period of initial efforts to influence Washington’s decision. It will cover the behind-the-scenes discussions, on both sides, over how public appeals should be made, as well as the start of the newspaper war. I begin, however, by examining the public meet- the฀firestorm฀and฀the฀counterattack฀฀฀73 ings—largely against, but occasionally for the treaty—in some detail...