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chapter seven 1778 France and Spain enter the War Perhaps the most important events occurring during the year 1778 took place in Paris, not in North America. On 7 January, the French Royal Council agreed to an alliance with the American colonies, followed by a formal treaty on 6 February . One week later, they announced this to the British, knowing that it would probably lead to war because Britain would have to curtail sending troops, ships and supplies to America, and the French Navy would undoubtedly harass British ships in the Channel. Meanwhile, Washington’s soldiers were going without food and adequate clothing at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. The British might well have taken heart had they realized how inadequate the Continental Congress and the several colonies were in caring for their troops. The only bright spot for the Americans was the arrival in February of Baron Friedrich von Steuben who volunteered his services to help train the Continental Army. In April, the British received intelligence that the French fleet was sailing from Toulon, bound for America. At first they thought that they could intercept and cripple this flotilla, but their hopes were dashed. On the other hand, American expectations ran high that intervention by the French Navy would shift the balance in their favor in North American waters. With France now in the war, the British decided to send three Commissioners (Frederick Howard, Earl of Carlisle; William Eden of the Board of Trade; and George Johnstone, former Governor of West Florida) to America, to attempt to negotiate a peace settlement. They reached Philadelphia in June 1778 prepared to make further concessions to the colonists, but not to acknowledge their independence. At this time, things were not going well for the British, since simply occupying Philadelphia had not proven sufficient to apply pressure on the colonists. Therefore , they determined to evacuate the city. Concurrently, William Howe requested permission to return to England, and Sir Henry Clinton took command of all forces in America in early May. In addition, Guy Carleton refused to carry out orders from Lord George Germain, and was replaced by Frederick Haldimand. 611 612 the american revolution through british eyes On 18 June, the formal evacuation began. In the course of the withdrawal, the British tried to fend off Rebel attacks on their flanks, but were foiled by the unorthodox tactics of the colonists. They encountered Washington’s troops near Monmouth Courthouse in New Jersey, and in the battle that ensued both sides sustained heavy casualties. In July the French fleet under Admiral D’Estaing reached New York. It did not enter into a naval conflict, but rather sought anchorage in Rhode Island. The British were greatly relieved that Admiral John Byron’s squadron arrived to augment their available ships. On 10 August, the British and French ships closed in battle, but severe weather forced each side to retire, and the next day, to the dismay of the Patriots, D’Estaing sailed for Boston on the pretext that his ships needed repairs. Byron then reassembled his ships that had been scattered by storms. This took until 11 September when they reunited off Sandy Hook. Soon thereafter, Viscount Howe relinquished temporary command of the North American fleet to Vice Admiral James Gambier and sailed for England. Symptomatic of how stretched British resources were when France entered the war, Major General James Grant, with more than 4,000 troops, was ordered to set sail in November for St. Lucia in the West Indies, the British having lost Dominica to the French a few months before. Similarly, John Campbell [of Strachur ] brought nearly 1,000 soldiers to Pensacola in order to reinforce the meager defenses of West Florida, responding to the fear that Spain would support France, and Florida would be vulnerable to Spanish incursions. What had seemed so promising to the Rebels, the arrival of a substantial French fleet, was totally undone by D’Estaing’s decision on 4 November to sail to Martinique , abandoning any prospect of France influencing the war in North America. In November, the British inaugurated their “Southern Strategy,” which became necessary because it was proving so difficult to defeat Washington in New England and the mid-Atlantic States. The focus needed to shift toward the illdefended South. Accordingly, on 8 November, Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, with about 2,400 soldiers, sailed for Georgia. In December, British fortunes improved. They subdued the island of St. Lucia, and finally forced Savannah, Georgia, to surrender; twin victories...

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