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INTRODUCTION It is becoming increasing dif¤cult to justify yet another book dealing with some aspect of World War II. Of all the armed con¶icts of past centuries, World War II has engendered the most interest as well as an exhausting amount of written material. The opening of the Soviet archives and the recent commemoration of the ¤ftieth anniversary of the many de¤ning moments of the war have resulted in yet another spate of books and ¤lms that examine the con¶ict in retrospect. But most of the research and interest naturally concentrate on the major theaters of war and the major ¤gures involved. Little wars are often overlooked. Yet in the small state the human suffering was no less pitiful, the destruction no less devastating, the heroism no less laudatory, the treachery no less despicable, and the impact no less profound. Albania counts as one of these forgotten theaters, in which the struggle was on a smaller scale, although it did not seem that way to the Albanians. The struggle was long and intense, and for the Albanians it was disturbingly familiar. The Albanians have known more than their share of war, often invaded but perhaps never fully conquered. In World War I alone, the newly created state of Albania was invaded and occupied by no fewer than six different foreign armies. Enver Hoxha—Albania’s Stalinist dictator until his death in 1985—was fond of repeating the often quoted adage that Albanians have hacked their way through history with a sword in hand in order to build socialism with a pickax and a ri¶e. The reference may be overly colorful, but there is a certain truth to the assertion, particularly in the context of World War II. Although not as dramatic as it was elsewhere, the war began earlier and lasted longer in Albania. The Italians invaded and occupied Albania in April 1939, well before the German invasion of Poland and before World War II of¤cially began, though it did not seem that way to many Albanians. In a certain sense the war in Albania can be seen as a microcosm of the war in the rest of the Balkans and in Europe as a whole. Albania suffered from all of the same complexities, if not more. In the short run, the Italian invasion and the subsequent German invasion were unsuccessfully resisted by the brave 1 few. Collaborators were found to fashion puppet governments, and resistance was organized to punish the traitors and expel the invaders. As is true of other areas of Europe, this resistance fragmented along political lines. The Allies found it dif¤cult to decide which group to support, but nevertheless played an important role in terms of leadership and supplies. The invaders were ¤nally expelled and the collaborators liquidated, as in other areas of Europe. At the end of the war in Albania, in late 1944, the communists found themselves unchallenged and assumed both military and political leadership. But Albania’s unique internal conditions produced signi¤cant variations in the theme, and below a familiar surface the complications become endless. During the Italian occupation the fragmentation among the resistance, for example, was much more severe than in other parts of the Balkans or in Europe. To complicate matters, many of these resistance groups proved to be inconsistent, occasionally cooperating with the invader, then turning to resistance , then reverting to cooperation. This vacillation can be explained, at least partially, by the lack of a fully developed sense of nationalism. As a result, the reaction of individual groups often depended principally on a regional, tribal, and local considerations. This lack of a fully developed nationalism also determined the response of many of the tribal chieftains to the invaders; they looked to play the various forces off against each other and thereby achieve some advantage for their areas. It is simple to judge many of these Albanian leaders in light of Vidkun Quisling and label them as traitors, but that would attribute to them a level of nationalist sophistication that they did not yet possess. Many aspects of Albania’s experience under German occupation are also unique. Albania’s peculiar internal conditions, as well as German needs, allowed for the creation of a surprisingly independent occupation regime. This government , by doing away with most outward signs of fascism and following a reformist political and economic policy, managed to attract a signi¤cant amount of genuine popular support. Much of this came as a...

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