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9 Foreign Equilibrium and Internal Crisis: 1895-1905 The period in the history of the Habsburg army which opened with the death of Archduke Albrecht in 1895 and closed with the dismissal of Beck in 1906 saw a substantial relaxation of tensions in the foreign relations of the monarchy. At the same time, however, and in part because of this reduced outside pressure, ipternal crises continued and even escalated. In both halves of the monarchy the turbulent opposition by the dominant nationalities almost brought parliamentary government to a halt. In the case of Hungary a confrontation about the character of the army raised the specter of total separation, and by 1905 military leaders seriously considered large-scale intervention against Budapest. Under these circumstances the rapid progress of the army, acclaimed by Beck in 1896, came to a halt and the Austro-Hungarian military establishment entered a period of stagnation. In the 1890s European power alignments tended to blur and even break down. The main effort of the great powers was directed toward colonial expansion and "global policy." While Austria-Hungary, lacking sufficient naval strength, did not enter the race for colonies, it profited from the preoccupations of Russia and Italy. Although by 1896 Beck was disappointed and somewhat apprehensive about the recent shift in German military priorities and the subsequent weakening of the alliance, the Russian threat to the Dual Monarchy was, temporarily at least, receding. To be sure, the long-feared alliance between Russia and France materialized in the agreements of 1891 and 1894, while the secret Austro-Serb treaty was not renewed after 1895. Even so, the military picture looked rather encouraging. The Chinese-Japanese war of 1894 diverted Russian attention from the Balkans, and Italy's defeat at Adua in 1896 revealed the martial shortcomings of an ally still regarded with grave suspicions. Meanwhile, the Balkan situation remained a source of concern; when Beck visited Rumania in 1896 in order to explore implementation of the Austro-Rumanian alliance, his general impression was that popular opposition in that country might well create serious obstacles to an effective military cooperation. 1 However, the Balkan situation became much less critical when in May 1897 Austria-Hungary and Russia signed an agreement affirming the status quo in that region and pledging consultation and common policy if change became necessary. By the end of 1897 the relaxation in the foreign affairs of the Dual Monarchy was so marked that Beck, now the undisputed first soldier, 123 124 Chapter 9 informed Francis Joseph that a major war was most unlikely in the near future ,2 and he reaffirmed this appraisal in the following year.3 In fact, though Beck remained suspicious about Russia's ultimate intentions, her major effort was now made in the Far East. To secure her rear, Russia needed Austria-Hungary's neutrality; the Balkan agreement, reaffirmed in 1903 and 1904, allowed the tsar to enter into the disastrous war with Japan. Although Russian military reverses were welcome news for the k.u.k. general staff, the revolution which followed caused some repercussions in the Dual Monarchy. In balance, however, it appeared as though future threats from Russia were much diminished, and Beck noted with satisfaction that Russia "will be crippled for years."4 On the other hand, Italy remained a dubious quantity in all diplomatic and military calculations. Friction between Rome and Vienna continued, and Austrian generals still entertained strong reservations about Italy's fidelity to the Triple Alliance. Military misgivings, however, were not shared by the foreign minister, Agenor Count Goluchowski, who opposed military plans for improving the state of defenses in South Tyrol, claiming that it might prejudice allied relations. 5 Therefore, Austro-Hungarian troop strength along the southwestern frontier remained low, and fortifications were not modernized to any extent.6 Moreover, although Italy had been in a rapprochement with France since 1898, she still remained, at least outwardly, faithful to her treaty obligations. In case of war, Italian divisions were slated for deployment on the extreme left wing of the German front in the Alsace, and consultations continued regarding the best utilization of the Austro-Hungarian railroads to carry these troops.7 At the same time, reports from the monarchy's military attache in Rome indicated that Italy would continue to honor her agreements.8 The reports from Rome came in response to inquiries raised in 1900 about the probable future Italian course of action when Victor Emmanuel III succeeded King Humbert. In general, Humbert had...

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