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CONCLUSION Upon their accession Maria Theresa, her sons, and her grandson each faced different situations and brought with them varying philosophical views toward the task of governing. Their atti, tudes toward centralization and the competing demands made by the Estates, their attitudes toward the nationalities and national minorities, and their use of the traditional divide,and,conquer methods are all amply illustrated in their approaches to governing eighteenth,century Tyrol, both Italian and German. After Maria Theresa's comparatively gentle absolutism and Joseph II's more forceful approach to reform, Leopold II found that he could not be as unswerving in pursuit of Gesammtmonarchie as they had been; he had to back down and give in on some policies to prevent the collapse or breakup of his inheritance. In addition, for philosophical and political reasons, he preferred to work with and through the Estates even if they did not readily comply with his wishes. And although his revocation of certain language requirements and easing of others did help the Monarchy survive for an, other 130 years, these steps did not contribute to the unified state that his predecessors and forebears had been working so hard to build. From the point of view of participatory government, increasing the role of the Estates was admirable, but it also strengthened the particularistic tendencies of his peoples. Francis II continued Leopold's constitutional and cultural policies, but he departed from many long,standing economic policies. Francis II was, in fact, a superb constitutional monarch, much closer to his father than to this grandmother and uncle in dealing with the Estates and lands. For example, Maria Theresa never convoked the Estates of Tyrol despite her repeated promises, and she convoked others only when she absolutely had to or when she was assured of their compliance. Joseph was even less willing to deal with the Estates in most of his lands, convoking no Diets in Hungary or Tyrol and assembling others only when their compli, ance was assured. Leopold, however, preferred politically and philosophi, cally to work with the Estates and reestablished the constitutions of his many lands. Francis adhered to constitutional requirements, convoking the Diets as often as required and otherwise adhering to the laws of his landsrespecting , almost to a fault, the rule of law in a Rechtsstaat. 140 141 CONCLUSION Perhaps the biggest surprise in Francis's approach and policies was his abandonment of centuries,old economic controls in favor of a market' oriented agriculture and economy-surprising because of his reputation epitomized in Viktor Bibl's statement, "He forgot nothing and he learned nothing:' The view of Francis as a ruler unwilling to innovate clearly must be reexamined. As noted before, Francis was closer to the centralizing policies of his grandmother or his uncle in attempts to strengthen central influence. After the defeat of Napoleon when Francis took control of a restored Tyrol, he reunited the offices of Landeshauptmann and governor, un, doing what his father had done; the occupant of the office was appointed by Vienna, and the Estates again lost their independent spokesman. Italian Tyrol in the second half of the eighteenth century and Habs, burg policies toward it also show clearly pre,Napoleonicnational feeling as well as some early indications of separatism and irredentism. Vienna's actions contributed to the growth of italianita in Tyrol and of national feeling in other lands. The rulers supported the establishment of all kinds of cultural institutions-academies, learned societies, patriotic or agricul, tural improvement societies (at the beginning, these societies were the same), national theaters, and the studies of local languages and even their use in some universities (such as in the Italian or Czech lands). In the eighteenth century the fostering of national cultures did not seem so con, tradictory to the parallel attempt to force the use of German in higher schools, courts, and government administration. The Habsburgs were not attempting to Germanize all aspects of life· in the lands they ruled and were quite willing to have children educated in their own languages; indeed, Maria Theresa's General School Ordinance provided for instruction in local languages in the primary schools, or Volksschule. But in their support of non,German languages and cultural institutions, the Habsburgs under' mined the attempt to have German used in higher schools and govern, ment. They also laid the foundation for future problems arising from nationalist and separatist sentiments and the resultant pulling of the Monarchy in directions that none of the eighteenth,century rulers...

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