A Sea of Misadventures: Shipwreck and Survival in Early America

4. They Worked Like Horses but Behaved Like Men

72 . 4 . They Worked Like Horses but Behaved Like Men Accidents and escapes are worth recording, from the knowledge they convey, and the examples they produce.They plainly show that hope, perseverance, and subordination, should form the seamen’s great creed and duty; as they tend to banish despair, encourage confidence, and secure preservation.1 The sea affords an excellent arena for understanding the concept of masculinity . Sailors often entered the maritime world at a young age, and they quickly learned acceptable standards of behavior and created familial allegiances at sea.2 The day-to-day living conditions indoctrinated new recruits into the all-male society in which male-male relationships provided necessary support and brotherhood. On ships boys constructed second families, replacing those left on land, and formed relationships that provided these individuals with a sense of identity and belonging. Many friendships developed into lifelong associations that represented a form of kinship, becoming brothers in arms.3 Along the way “boys” became “men” as voyages transformed into tests of manhood. Physical and mental training inculcated a heroic notion of masculinity that designated bravery, ability, and endurance as true manliness.4 Romantic visions of hardy men sailing the open seas or of rowdy, vulgar riffraff whoring and drinking at every port remain popular images of sailors. By contrast, gentlemen captains and officers added a sense of dignity and respect to life at sea. In shipwrecks these perceptions persevered to a large degree,solidifying into a distinct definition of masculinity that incorporated They Worked Like Horses but Behaved Like Men 73 a level of status or class. Rather than promoting individualistic, emotional, or reckless behavior, the accounts remained conservative, insisting that men remain moderate, in self-control, sober, and honest. Essentially the stories stressed that maintaining traditional gender roles,as established by the upper classes, was the only way to survive.5 Audiences on land and at sea read the repeated lessons within these accounts that emphasized strength, moderation, and self-control. Reading these narratives, male audiences internalized a specific form of masculinity; they learned with whom to identify and the types of behavior to avoid. At moments of crisis, men revealed their true essence and either upheld masculine ideals or fell to the level of cowards. Prescriptive by nature, published accounts of shipwreck taught audiences the correct forms of behavior. Not only did these accounts promote specific definitions of masculinity, but they also substantiated order and assured readers that social stability and hierarchy remained intact. Many of the stories demonstrated that captains or officers who failed to display proper masculine virtues and crews who failed to obey sealed the vessels’demise.To overcome the chaotic situations, survival depended on leadership and the preservation of social order. Of course, some level of hierarchy was necessary for the proper sailing of the ships, but the narratives took this idea a step further and related how those who remained brave, capable, and collected lived to tell their tales, while those who failed faced chaos and death.This reliance on continued social order added a level of status to gender definitions.The stories often posited the captains in opposition to the crews and in doing so not only strengthened gender expectations but also promoted a certain definition of masculinity. Given the masculine nature of life at sea, it is not surprising to see a dominant male presence in shipwreck accounts. Men went to sea and sailed the ships, and predominately men experienced shipwrecks. This masculine emphasis is not to ignore women who sailed, but their place remained secondary in most published accounts. In addition the overwhelming ratio of men to women at sea makes it easy to see why shipwreck narratives revolved around male participation. Men were a majority of the authors as well, creating a clear bias in published accounts. Captains and crew members wrote or dictated their stories, giving themselves the starring roles. Men survived shipwrecks more often than women did and therefore provided the only authoritative voices for narrating the stories. As a result the available material for shipwreck accounts offered a male perspective that supplied a masculine-defined meaning of gender.6 Published narratives, in conjunction with other forms of popular literature such as songs and poetry,also projected a specific view of manliness that not only affected sailors but also “were projections for those not part of A Sea of Misadventures 74 the trade.”7 Men on...