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81 four Ritual and Practice In the previous chapter, I discussed the place of ‘ilm, knowledge of Islamic law and the related religious sciences, in Bukhārī’s teaching. ‘Ilm, according to Bukhārī, is the prerequisite for ‘amal, the devotional and contemplative practices of a darwēsh, while the khirqa is a sign of the darwēsh’s commitment to such practices. In this chapter, I discuss the types of ‘amal carried out by Bukhārī, and taught by him to his disciples, as well as the ritual of investiture with the Sufi khirqa. Devotional Practices While Bukhārī’s focus on ‘ilm may have been idiosyncratic, the devotional practices he undertook and enjoined are fairly typical of mainstream institutional Sufism—z ˉ ikr, retreats, fasting, and, most important, prayer. Each of these activities had its own rules andconditions,manyofthemexplainedindetailintheSufihandbooks.FromBukhārī’s teachings, several general points about these practices emerge. First, although they might appear as intrinsically valuable activities, in fact, they have the potential to be invalid and unacceptable if their conditions are not met. Second, apart from the rules specific to each activity, there are two pre-conditions that apply to all devotional and ritual practices. The practitioner must be uncontaminated by anything illegal (haram), such as food, clothing, or shelter derived from illicit sources. I discuss this issue in greater detail in chapter 5. The other general condition is “presence of the heart” (h ˙ użūr-i dil). H ˙ użūr-i dil means complete concentration on God and the banishment of, and detachment from, any distracting thoughts. Bukhārī repeatedly enjoined h ˙ użūr-i dil, especially during prayer, z ˉ ikr, and Quran recitation. The compiler of Jāmi‘ al-‘ulūm also instructs his readers to read that work with h ˙ użūr-i dil, as it is a prerequisite for gaining real benefit from the study of religious texts.1 Thus, beyond the concern for external formal accuracy in religious action, the need for concentration and detachment demonstrates that prayer and study are also internal meditative and contemplative practices. H ˙ użūr-i dil is not only a prerequisite for worship; it is also the result of acts of devotion. In fact, the purpose of z ˉ ikr, wearing a khirqa, living in a khānqāh, in 82 Teaching and Practice other words of living the life of a darwēsh, is to have h ˙ użūr-i dil.2 Meditative and contemplative practices require concentration and clarity of mind but are also ways of achieving them. Z ˉ ikr The religious practice most characteristic of the Sufi tradition is z ˉ ikr—remembrance of God through the rhythmic repetition of one of His names. Many Sufi orders and lineages practiced particular forms of z ˉ ikr which, if distinctive enough, became their distinguishing feature. Z ˉ ikr might be performed in solitude or in groups, aloud or silently, in particular postures and motions, and with specific breathing patterns. Talqīn, the implantation of z ˉ ikr, was, like investiture, an initiatory event in which the disciple was taught the master’s method of z ˉ ikr and the formula to be recited was implanted in the disciple’s heart. The z ˉ ikr formula and method also had a chain of transmission (isnād), just like a khirqa or a hadith. Bukhārī stated that the isnād for his z ˉ ikr reached back to the Prophet, and it connected to Shihāb al-dīn Suhrawardī by a single link, Sharaf al-dīn Mah ˙ mūd Shāh Tustarī who had implanted the z ˉ ikr in Bukhārī in 748/1347.3 The method of z ˉ ikr imparted by Bukhārī to his disciples is a fairly common one, using the creedal statement lā ilāha ilā allāh (there is no god but God). Sitting crosslegged with hands on thighs, one should begin the first, negative portion of the creed towards the left, moving one’s face or head so that the negation is completed towards the right. Then, one swings back again so that the affirmation of God is completed towards the left, since the heart is located on the left side of the body.4 One should direct the z ˉ ikr with intensity towards the left side in order to purify, polish, and soften the heart.5 It is also in the heart that one says the silent z ˉ ikr (z ˉ ikr-i khafī), though Bukhārī also prescribed z ˉ ikr said aloud, slowly...

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