Freebooters and Smugglers: The Foreign Slave Trade in the United States after 1808

Notes

Notes INTRODUCTION 1. See Joe G.Taylor,“The Foreign Slave Trade in Louisiana after 1808,” 36–45;William C. Davis, Three Roads to the Alamo:The Lives and Fortunes of David Crockett, James Bowie, andWilliam BarretTravis, 52–54; Fred H. Robbins, “The Origins and Development of the African Slave Trade into Texas, 1816–1860,” 51–55.The Bowie quote is found in C. L. Douglas, James Bowie: The Life of a Bravo, 24–25. 2. “George Washington Appoints First Marshals, 1789,” www.usdoj.gov/ marshals/usmshist.htm.Also see Frederick S. Calhoun, The Lawmen:The United States Marshals andTheir Deputies. 3. Sam Steer to John Minor,August 3, 1818,William J. Minor and Family Papers (hereafter cited as Minor Papers); Gene A. Smith,“U.S. Navy Gunboats and the Slave Trade in Louisiana Waters,” 144. 4. For discussions on the constitutional debate over the African slave trade, see Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution; Richard R. Beeman et al., eds., Beyond Confederation: Origins of the Constitution and American National Identity; Ira Berlin and Ronald Hoffman, eds., Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution; David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823;W. E. B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African SlaveTrade to the United States of America, 1638–1870; and William M.Wiecek,The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760–1848. 5. The terms “smugglers” and “traffickers” suggests individuals or groups of individuals who knowingly undermined or circumvented antislave-trade laws.Although “traffickers” sometimes participated in the legal domestic trade, this study uses the term to refer to those who participated in the illegal post-1808 foreign slave trade along with smugglers who only operated in violation of the law. 6. See LondonTimes, December 31, 1807; January 2, 1808; January 5, 1808; January 7, 1808; January 8, 1808.Also,Alan L. Karras,“‘Custom Has the Force of the Law’: Local Officials and Contraband in the Bahamas and the Floridas, 1748–1779,” 282–87;Alan L. Karras,“Caribbean Contraband, Slave Property, and the State, 1767–1792,” 250–69; G. Earl Sanders,“CounterContraband in Spanish America,” 60–61, 76–78; John Leedy Phelan, “Authority and Flexibility in the Spanish Imperial Bureaucracy,” 47–65; John Caughey,“Bernardo de Galvez and the English Smugglers on the Mississippi, 195 195 1777,” 46–58; John Howe, Journal kept by John Howe while he was employed as a British Spy, during the RevolutionaryWar; also while he was engaged in the Smuggling Business, during the lateWar, 28–31. See also John W.Tyler, Smugglers and Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution; John Brewer, The Sinews of Power:War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783, 176; Francis Ludlow Holt, A System of Shipping and Navigation Laws of Great Britain, 61; and Joseph Allen, The Navigation Laws of Great Britain: Historically and Practically Considered, 17–44. For more on the policing of remote harbors and frontiers, see Hugh Thomas, The SlaveTrade, 672–73. 7. See James A. McMillin, The FinalVictims: Foreign SlaveTrade to North America, 1783–1810, 6, 36–37, 43–44;Warren S. Howard, American Slavers and the Federal Law, 1837–1862, 3.Also, J. D. B. DeBow, StatisticalView of the United States, Embracing ItsTerritory, Population—White, Free Colored, and Slave—Moral and Social Condition, Industry, Property, and Revenue;The Detailed Statistics of Cities,Towns and Counties: Being a Compendium of the Seventh Census, to which Are Added the Results of Every Previous Census, Beginning with 1790, in ComparativeTables, with explanatory and illustrative notes, Based upon the Schedules and other Official Source of Information, 63, 82; Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, Time on the Cross:The Economics of American Negro Slavery, 20–22, 44–49; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana:The Development of Afro-Creole Cultures in the Eighteenth Century, 280–81; Paul F. LaChance,“The Politics of Fear: French Louisianans and the Slave Trade, 1786–1809,” 21; Patrick Riordan,“Finding Freedom in Florida: Native Peoples,African Americans, and Colonists, 1670–1816,” 34–40; Edwin L. Williams Jr.,“Negro Slavery in Florida,” 93–110; Robert H. Gudmestad, ATroublesome Commerce:TheTransformation of the Interstate SlaveTrade, 18–20; Daniel H. Unser Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy, 112–16. 8. For accounts of the development of the domestic slave trade, see Frederic Bancroft, SlaveTrading in the Old South, ch. 1–2;Allan Kulikoff, “Uprooted Peoples: Black Migrants in the Age of the American Revolution, 1790–1820...