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Andrea LouiseCampbell Chapter 6 Universalism, Targeting, and Participation Political inequality is one of the defining characteristics of our time. Some groups-the wealthy, the educated, and the organized-participate in politics at much higher rates than others. As a result, they tend to get more of what they want from the government (Campbell 2003a; Hill and Leighley 1992; Martin 2003). This wouldn't matter if their preferences across issue areas were the same as everyone else's-but they are not: the highly participatory also tend to have different policy preferences (Verba, Brady, and Schlozman 2004; Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1995). The result of political inequality is that the vocal and organized get their preferences fulfilled while the quiescent do not. Thus we care about inequalities in political participation because they influence what kind of policies come out of government. The factors that determine the likelihood that different individuals and groups will participate in politics arise from a variety of sources-formal education, childhood socialization , and social environments such as work, church, and nonpolitical organizations (Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1995). The most prominent explanations of political participation today are what Suzanne Mettler and Joe Soss (2004) term "sociological": how individuals fare in the political arena is determined by their social backgrounds and affiliations. However, these models tend to overlook a crucial source of political participation and inequality: public policy itself. As Jacob Hacker, Suzanne Mettler, and Joe Soss note in the introduction to this volume, we often think of public policies as being the outcomes of democratic processes. However, such policies are also profoundly influential inputs in the democratic process. The designs of policies-what they do, to whom they are targeted, and how generous they are-are not just the result of the struggle of contending groups as they make their way through the institutional processes of American government. The designs of public policies are also a key factor in determining who enters that struggle and how they fare. Government policies shape the ability of members of the mass public to participate in politics. In turn that participation influences subsequent policy outcomes. This chapter explores a variety of social policy areas, showing how government policies are key determinants of economic and in turn political equality. The particular characteristics of public policies that enhance or diminish recipient political participation will be examined. In the United States, constellations of these factors tend to come together, so that universal programs typically enhance participation while targeted programs undermine it. These program effects feed back into the political system, affecting subsequent policy initiatives and reforms. 122 RemakingAmerica PARTICIPATORY DIFFERENCES: WHERE DO THEY COME FROM? The chief method by which members of the mass public can be heard in the political arena is through political participation. When citizens vote, make campaign contributions , write letters to elected officials, work on campaigns, sign petitions, and attend rallies and protests, they send messages to the government about their political preferences. These participatory acts vary in how difficult they are, how much information they convey to policymakers, and how egalitarian they are (Verba and Nie 1972). But in each case, whether individuals become involved in these activities is a function of the participatory factors of resources, engagement, and mobilization (Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1995). These factors determine whether individuals can participate in political action, whether they want to, and whether they are asked to do so. These participatory factors share two important characteristics: they tend to build on each other, and they are each influenced by public policy. Resources help determine whether individuals are able to participate in politics.1 Politically relevant resources include formal education, income, civic skills, and free time. Those with more education find the bureaucratic hurdles associated with political participation -registering to vote in advance of election day, locating mailing addresses for members of Congress-less daunting than do the less educated. Political knowledge and interest tend to increase with education, as does location in social groupings where participation is the norm. Income, too, aids participation, particularly in activities such as making campaign donations, where it is a necessary ingredient. As with the educated, more affluent individuals tend to be surrounded by social and work environments in which politics is discussed and participation expected. And income typically increases engagement with politics, as stakes in government policies increase with higher incomes (think of tax policy, where the more one earns, the more one has at stake). Possessing politically relevant skills such as letter writing and speech...

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