Latinos in the Midwest

Conclusion

n 303 Conclusion The studies and essays in this volume shed light on some aspects of the experiences and dimensions of Latinos in the Midwest. Although a robust body of scholarship is beginning to emerge, much research remains to be done both on the historical experience and current context of Latinos in midwestern communities, especially relative to ways by which they can be incorporated into societal institutions and how their socioeconomic status can be improved. The demographic shift that is currently under way portends many social, economic, and political consequences for the region and the nation, especially if the incorporation of this growing population segment into the fabric of core societal institutions is not addressed directly and systematically. Zúñiga and Hernández-León (2005) point out that the “social situations, relations and contexts” of Latino newcomers are in a state of flux in their new communities . One factor that contributes to that flux is the conflict between political forces that seek to incorporate Latinos into the core institutions of U.S. society and those that seek to exclude them from full participation in society. This conflict seems to frame the context not only for newcomers but for all Latinos (Cafferty and Engstrom 2000). The forces of inclusion or incorporation are diverse in their rationales and 304 n Conclusion philosophies for inclusion, but they recognize the importance that incorporating Latinos has for the future of the nation. The forces that pursue exclusion are nativist movements that seek to protect American culture and institutions from the impact of pluralistic forces and immigrants, especially Latino immigrants, who tend to be viewed either as unassimilable or unwilling to assimilate into American society. The struggles take place at the level of everyday life, where people come in contact with each other, whether on the street or inside organizations, and they take place at legal and policy levels, where success tends to have more general and enduring consequences. These may include local, state, and federal policies, many of which are constructed and challenged at the level of the electorate through referendums, in legislative arenas, and in the courts, depending on the forces at play. Reactionary responses to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s set in motion a series of struggles between exclusionary and inclusionary forces that have persisted for decades. Indeed, as early as 1975, when Texas changed its education laws to deny a public education to undocumented school-age children, there have been organized efforts to limit public benefits to undocumented immigrants. Although the Texas law, Texas Education Code § 21.031, was found unconstitutional in Plyler v. Doe by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit and its decision was affirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1982, efforts to deny public benefits to undocumented immigrants have persisted. In California, Proposition 187 (also known as the Save Our State Initiative) was passed by referendum in 1994, to limit public benefits to undocumented immigrants. And although it was found to be unconstitutional in 1997, the legal struggles persisted through appeals until it was finally killed in 1999, when Governor Gray Davis took the case to mediation and dropped the appeals process before the courts. Anti-affirmative action measures followed Proposition 187, and were passed in several states, including California, Washington, Nebraska, and Michigan. These measures targeted native-born Latinos and other minorities. In the wake of 9/11, frustration with the inability of the federal government to address immigration issues has resulted in a spate of additional anti-immigrant initiatives at state and local levels. Most recently, the attacks tend to center on education. Perhaps among the many dimensions of incorporation (including civic engagement, entrepreneurship and economic development, community development, organizational leadership, and so on) education ranks among the most important because without a solid education members of subordinate groups are not likely to attain the knowledge and technical skill sets necessary for full participation in today’s society. This is especially the case given that most new jobs tend to require some postsecondary education and the fact that good jobs require high-level cognitive skills (Carnevale Conclusion n 305 and Fry 2002). Moreover, the education of minority males is a growing challenge across the country (Harris 2009). These more recent attacks focus on abolishing out-of-state tuition exemptions for qualified undocumented students, although eliminating bilingual education and abolishing birthright citizenship for children born in the United States to undocumented...