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ChaptEr ElEvEn Methods in the Archaeology of Colonial Frontier Forts Examples from Virginia and West Virginia w. stEphEn mCbridE and kim a. mCbridE introduCtion In this article we discuss research methods to locate and further investigate eighteenth century frontier forts in present West Virginia and western Virginia. A background context for these forts illustrates their position in the frontier settlement landscape. These forts were generally built by local citizens, county militia, or provincial soldiers, or a combination of these, and often served as the earliest central places in the landscape. They provided a place of refuge for settlers and a point to garrison troops. In many cases, the presence of a fort and defense prevented total abandonment of a settlement. As such, these forts were an important adaptation to the colonization of a disputed territory. Unfortunately, historical documentation on these forts is extremely limited. This is particularly the case with questions of fort design and their precise location . Archaeology is the best, and sometimes only, avenue of research. Subsurface remains such as stone foundations, stockade trenches, and postmolds can help us understand the original footprint of a fort and how it was constructed. Artifacts inside these features, such as nails, spikes, and daub (sun-baked clay) provide additional information on construction methods. The first and hardest part of this type of archaeological research is locating the forts. Since they, or at least their military functions, were ephemeral, there is often very limited artifactual evidence and a lack of reliable military maps. If the fort site experienced later domestic occupation, locating definite fortperiod artifacts or features is even more difficult. It usually takes a combination of oral and documentary sources plus creative archaeology to locate these sites, especially ones that have good integrity. Once located, excavation can be further complicated if the sites have lengthy occupations including many non-fort features and artifacts. Methods used to locate and excavate these sites will be discussed following the presentation of a brief historical context. thE FrontiEr dEFEnsivE systEm It is impossible to understand the nature and function of frontier forts without background on the defensive system in which they existed. When the French and Indian War began in 1754, local frontier defenses were not well-developed. As a result, Virginia created and administered a frontier defensive system that included fort construction and creation of a military force known as the Virginia Regiment. These initiatives reinforced those residential forts built in 1754 and 1755 and the activities of the poorly organized local militia. This system was later strengthened, or better organized, by the settlers and militia constructing new forts, during Dunmore’s War (1774) and the Revolutionary War (1775–83), and by improving the militia and using a network of scouts (“Indian spies”) to observe enemy movements. Local initiatives were aided, at times, by broader offensive military campaigns such as Andrew Lewis’s Point Pleasant campaign and the campaigns of George Rogers Clark, Lachlan McIntosh, and by government-sponsored peace negotiations. Still, settlers relied primarily on their own local defensive system for protection. 124 w. stephen mcbride and kim a. mcbride During the frontier period, the primary local military force was the county militia. During the French and Indian War, the militia was supplemented by the Virginia Regiment. Made up of volunteers and appointed officers, the Virginia Regiment was divided into companies under a captain. Commanded by Col. George Washington after August 1755, the Virginia Regiment constructed numerous forts down the Valley of Virginia in present Virginia and West Virginia. During the Revolutionary War, the militia was supplemented by Virginia State Troops; regular state soldiers who enlisted to serve within the boundaries of the state and who garrisoned forts on the Ohio River. The Virginia Militia was modeled on an ancient English institution (Cress 1982). All free white males aged 18 to 50, excepting those with vital occupations, were required to serve. Although the governor was the overall commander, the militia was organized at the county level and led by county lieutenants whose staff and company officers commanded the men. Each county had at least one regiment divided into five to ten companies of approximately 20–80 men and officers. The county lieutenant could order the militia to service within the county, but to take his companies outside the county he had to ask for volunteers. This hindered offensive action because creating a sizeable force of more than 200–300 men required volunteers from adjacent frontier counties (Sosin 1967:106; Stone 1977:13). Accounts...

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