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Conclusion Comparing the Modern Presidents’ Environmental Policies We travel together, passengers in a little spaceship . . . preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. adlai stevenson, 1965 As one of the three major pillars of the U.S. political system, the American presidency is expected to fulfill public expectations in performing domestic and foreign policy making. Over the years, the American presidency has been concerned primarily with the economy, jobs, and foreign and national security policy. Health care, education, civil rights, and domestic and transboundary environmental concerns, among other issues, have received different levels of consideration by different presidents. Over the last seven decades, the twelve presidents who have occupied the White House can be assessed in terms of their commitment to environmentalism . To what extent did they use the power resources of their office to promote environmental values or to what degree did they favor development over preservation and conservation values? Did they take effective, affirmative action that had a positive impact on the environment, function in a symbolic or cautious manner, or use the power of the White House in a way that had a negative impact on the environmental domain? Environmental Characteristics of the Modern Presidents Presidents have played a diverse role in the environmental policy-making process. The characteristics, actions, and accomplishments of the modern presidents regarding the environmental domain are summarized in the table below. When considering the theme of individual administrations and the orientation of individual presidents toward the environment, we find a clear difference between Democrats and Republicans. Conservation efforts tend to be associated with Democratic leadership while Republicans are, on the whole, linked to a prodevelopment, antiregulatory orientation. Franklin D. Roosevelt ushered in the “golden age of conservation” while John Kennedy was instrumental in promoting an environmental legacy for future generations . Lyndon Johnson wanted most to beautify America by cleaning up trash, waste, and pollution. Jimmy Carter spoke often about conservation and alternative sources of energy while Bill Clinton (and Al Gore) empha- comparing the presidents’ policies 211 sized “sustainable development.” In contrast, Dwight Eisenhower preferred a limited role for the federal government, George H. W. Bush attempted to balance the economy and environment, Ronald Reagan stressed cost-benefit analysis when evaluating environmental concerns, and George W. Bush maintained a probusiness orientation. Having said this, Richard Nixon was the anomaly, as he declared the 1970s the “decade of the environment.” Presidentsdon’tactinisolationfromtheirpoliticalenvironment,andeach has had key individuals who played an important role in influencing presidential action involving the making of environmental policy. From Franklin Roosevelt to Lyndon Johnson, the secretaries of the Department of the Interior and the Department of Agriculture contributed in major ways to defining the parameters of environmental policy making. Harold Ickes, Stewart Udall, Cecil Andrus, and Bruce Babbitt all played an important role in promoting protection of the public lands. In contrast, Douglas McKay became known as “giveaway McKay” during the Eisenhower administration, while James Watt became a lightning rod for environmentalists’ wrath during the Reagan years. Beginning with Nixon, the head of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) increasingly became a key player. Where Anne Gorsuch Burford exhibited overt preference for business interests over the environment while serving under Reagan, Carol Browner promoted a more balanced approach to the economy versus environment debate during the Clinton years. While Bush 41 raised the hopes of environmentalists by appointing William Reilly as head of the EPA, Reilly’s influence was downplayed as Bush 41 was influenced in turn by interior secretary Manuel Lujan. Bush 43 chose Dick Cheney as his vice president, and selected Gale Norton, who followed in the steps of James Watt, while Christie Todd Whitman, viewed as a moderate as EPA head, saw her influence decline within the Bush 43 environmental policy–making process. Presidents have a variety of methods and instruments of power they can employ in the process of carrying out their policy agenda. First, through political communication, presidents can make a connection with the American public by reaching out to them through a variety of communication outlets . Major speeches, including the State of the Union message, provide the president with the opportunity to outline the priorities of the administration , where, for instance, President Richard Nixon declared the 1970s as the “decade of the environment.” The president also disseminates preferences through special messages to Congress and communicates in other settings including talks to organized interests...

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