Becoming American?: The Forging of Arab and Muslim Identity in Pluralist America

Notes

97 Notes < Chapter 1 1 Daniel Pipes, “The Muslims Are Coming! The Muslims Are Coming!” National Review, November 19, 1990, 28–31; Martin Kramer, “Islam vs. Democracy,” Commentary 95, no. 1 (1993): 35–42. 2 The Christian communities are remnants of early Christian churches. Among the churches identified as “Orthodox,” for example, are those that follow the Byzantine, Assyrian, Jacobite, Coptic, and Gregorian rites. Each of these churches has its Catholic Uniate counterpart, those who have established fealty to the Vatican. More recently, Arab countries have seen the establishment of new churches representing Protestant denominations (predominantly Anglican and Presbyterian), along with smaller Lutheran, Baptist, Jehovah’s Witness, Pentecostal, and other evangelical and sectarian Christian churches. It is estimated that Catholics (Roman Catholic, Maronite, and Melkite) constitute 42 percent, Orthodox (Antiochian, Syrian, Greek, and Coptic) 23 percent, and Protestants (Episcopalians, Baptist and Presbyterian) 12 percent of Christian churches. “Demographics,” Arab American Institute website, http://www.aaiusa.org/ demographics.htm#Religion3. 3 See, e.g., Walter B. Zenner, “The Syrian Jews of Brooklyn,” in A Community of Many Worlds: Arab Americans in New York City, ed. Kathleen Benson and Philip M. Kayal (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2002), 98 Notes to pp. 3–9 156–69; Dina Dahbany-Miraglia, “American Yemenite Jewish Interethnic Strategies,” in Persistence and Flexibility: Anthropological Perspectives on the American Jewish Experience, ed. Walter B. Zenner (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 63–78; Sephardic Archives, The Spirit of Aleppo: Syrian Jewish Immigrant Life in New York, 1890–1939 (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Sephardic Community Center, 1986). 4 It is estimated that 3.4 percent are sub-Saharan African, 2.1 percent European, 1.6 percent white American converts, 1.3 percent Southeast Asian, 1.2 percent Caribbean, 1.1 percent Turkish, 0.7 percent Iranian, and 0.6 percent Hispanic. http://infousa.state.gov/education/overview/muslimlife/ demograph.htm. 5 Alixa Neff, Becoming American: The Early Arab Immigrant Experience (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985); Elaine Hagopian and Ann Paden, eds., The Arab-Americans: Studies in Assimilation (Wilmette, Ill.: Medina University Press International, 1969); Barbara Aswad, Arabic-Speaking Communities in American Cities (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1984); Eric J. Hooglund, ed., Crossing the Waters: Arabic-Speaking Immigrants in the United States before 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987). 6 Kathleen Moore, Al-Mughtaribun: American Law and the Transformation of Muslim Life in the United States (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); Ian Haney-López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996). The famine itself was from 1914 to 1918 and killed about 13% of the population. 7 Salloum A. Mokarzel, “Can We Retain Our Heritage? A Call to Form a Federation of Syrian Societies,” Syrian World 3, no. 5 (1928): 36–40. 8 Philip Khuri Hitti, The Syrians in America (New York: George H. Doran, 1924). 9 Abdo A. Elkholy, The Arab Moslems in the United States: Religion and Assimilation (New Haven, Conn.: College and University Press, 1966), 24. 10 Nabeel Abraham, “Detroit’s Yemeni Workers,” MERIP Reports 53 (1977): 3–9; Nabeel Abraham, “National and Local Politics: A Study of Political Conflict in the Yemeni Immigrant Community of Detroit, Michigan” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1978). 11 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 15–16. 12 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 18. 13 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 18. 14 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 58. 15 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 34, 37. 16 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 92. 17 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 33, 37. 18 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 33. 19 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 90. 20 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 69, 95, 98. Notes to pp. 11–18 99 21 Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Adair T. Lummis, Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). 22 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 31–32, 70. 23 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 70. 24 Haddad and Lummis, Islamic Values, 126–27. 25 Haddad and Lummis, Islamic Values, 132. 26 Haddad and Lummis, Islamic Values, 134–36. 27 John V. Tolan, Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Oxford: One World, 1993); V. G. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to the Outside World in the Imperial Age (London: Pelican, 1972); Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London: Routledge, 1990). 28 Karim H. Karim, Islamic Peril: Media and Global Violence (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 2000); Edward Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Vantage Books, 1997); Abbas Malek, News Media and Foreign Relations: A Multifaceted Perspective (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1996); William J. Griswald, The Image of the Middle East in Secondary School Textbooks (New York: Middle East Studies Association of North America, 1975); Samir Ahmad Jarrar, “Images of the Arabs in United States Secondary School Textbooks” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1976); Ayad al-Qazzaz, “Images of the Arabs in American Social Science Textbooks,” in Arabs in America: Myths and Realities, ed. Baha Abu Laban and Faith T. Zeadey (Wilmette, Ill.: Medina University Press International, 1975), 113–31; Glenn Perry, “Treatment of the Middle East in American High School Textbooks,” Journal of Palestine Studies 4, no. 3 (1975): 46–58. 29 Elaine Hagopian, “Minority Rights in a Nation State: The Nixon Administration’s Campaign against Arab-Americans,” Journal of Palestine Studies 5, nos. 1–2 (1975–1976): 97–114. 30 Michael Palumbo, “Land without a People,” 4, Mideastfacts.org website, http://mideastfacts.org/facts/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf= 1&id=48. 31 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 18. 32 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 48. 33 Elkholy, Arab Moslems, 48–49. 34 Helen Hatab Samhan, “Politics and Exclusion: The Arab American Experience,” Journal of Palestine Studies 16, no. 2 (1987): 16, http://www .jstor.org/stable/2537085; Hatem I. Hussaini, “The Impact of the ArabIsraeli Conflict on Arab Communities in the United States,” in Settler Regimes in Africa and the Arab World: The Illusion of Endurance, ed. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod and Baha Abu-Laban (Wilmette, Ill.: Medina University Press International, 1974), 201–22; Near East Report, May 14, 1969, and October 29, 1969; Hagopian, “Minority Rights,” 101. 100 Notes to pp. 18–29 35 Michael R. Fischbach, “Government Pressure against Arabs in the United States,” Journal of Palestine Studies 14, no. 3 (1985): 89. 36 For additional details, see Paul Findley, They Dare Speak Out: People and Institutions Confront Israel’s Lobby (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1989). 37 Seymour M. Hersh, “A Broad PRogram: Panthers, Saboteur Targets— Hoover Opposed the Plan,” New York Times (1923–Current Files), The New York Times, May 24, 1973, pp. 1, 34, http://0-proquest.umi.com .library.lausys.georgetown.edu/pqdweb?did=99146877&sid=1&Fmt=10 &clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName=HNP (accessed June 12, 2011); Raphael Rothstein, “Israel: Fighteing Terror With Terror,” The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959–1973), The Washington Post, October 15, 1972, p. B3. http://0-proquest.umi.com.library.lausys.georgetown.edu/pqdweb ?did=99702836&sid=3&Fmt=10&clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName= HNP (accessed June 12, 2011). 38 Fischbach, “Government Pressure,” 87–100. 39 M. C. Bassiouni, ed., The Civil Rights of Arab-Americans: “The Special Measures, information paper #10 (Belmont, Mass.: Association of ArabAmerican University Graduates, 1974); Hagopian, “Minority Rights,” 102. 40 Abdeen Jabara, “The FBI and the Civil Rights of Arab-Americans,” ADC Issues, no. 5 (n.d.): 1. 41 Jack Shaheen, Abscam: Arabiaphobia in America (Washington, D.C.: American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, 1980); Jerry J. Berman, “A Public Policy Report,” ACLU Washington Office, October 10, 1982. 42 Ayad al-Qazzaz, “The Arab Lobby: Toward an Arab-American Political Identity,” al-Jadid 3, no. 14 (1997): 10. 43 Jerome Bakst, “Arabvertising: The New Brand of Arab Propaganda,” Times of Israel, April 1975, 15–23, as referenced in Hagopian, “Minority Rights,” 111. 44 Gregory Orfalea, “Sifting the Ashes: Arab-American Activism during the 1982 Invasion of Lebanon,” Arab Studies Quarterly 11, nos. 2–3 (1989): 207–26. 45 Khaled Abou El Fadl, “Striking a Balance: Islamic Legal Discourse on Muslim Minorities,” in Muslims on the Americanization Path?, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 52. For more details on the subject, see Khaled Abou El Fadl, “Islamic Law and Muslim Minorities: The Jouristic Discourse on Muslim Minorities from the Second/Eighth to the Eleventh/Seventeenth Centuries,” Islamic Law and Society 1, no. 2 (1994): 141–87. 46 “Isti‘anat al-Muslimin bi’l-Kuffar wa Ahl al-Bid‘a wa al-Ahwa’,” in Al-A‘mal al-Kamila li’l-Imam Muhammad ‘Abdu: al-Kitabat al-Siyasiyya, ed. Muhammad ‘Amara (Cairo: al-Mu’assasa al-‘Arabiyya li’l-Dirasat wa’lNashr , 1972), 708–15. 47 Abou El Fadl, “Striking a Balance,” 52. 48 Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (Indianapolis: American Trust, 1990). Notes to pp. 31–38 101 49 Syed A. Hassan Ali Nadvi, Muslims in the West: The Message and Mission (London: Islamic Foundation, 1983), 111. 50 Nadvi, Muslims in the West, 158. 51 Muhammad Ali Kettani, Muslim Minorities in the World Today (London: Mansell, 1986), 9–13. For further discussion on the topic, see Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “The Challenge of Muslim Minorityness: The American Experience,” in The Integration of Islam and Hinduism in Western Europe, ed. W. A. R. Shadid and P. S. van Koningsveld (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1991), 134–53. 52 Barbara Daly Metcalf, “New Medinas: The Tablighi Jama‘at in America and Europe,” in Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, ed. Barbara Daly Metcalf (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 110–27. 53 Muhammad Abdul-Rauf, “The Future of the Islamic Tradition in North America,” in The Muslim Community in North America, ed. Earle H. Waugh, Baha Abu-Laban, and Regula B. Qureshi (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1983), 271–72. 54 Mohammad T. Mehdi, Of Lions Chained: An Arab Looks at America (San Francisco: New World Press, [1962]). 55 Mohammad T. Mehdi, Terrorism: Why America Is the Target (New York: New World Press, 1988). 56 Mohammad T. Mehdi, Peace in Palestine (New York: New World Press, 1976). 57 See John L. Esposito, “Ismail R. Al-Faruqi: Muslim Scholar-Activist,” in The Muslims of America, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 65–79. 58 For his ideas on Arabism, see Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, On Arabism: Urubah and Religion (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1962). 59 As quoted in M. Tareq Quraishi, Ismail al-Faruqi: An Enduring Legacy (Plainfield, Ind.: Muslim Student Association, 1987), ii. 60 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life (Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982). 61 K. Ahmed, Arne Rudvin, et al., Christian Mission and Islamic Da‘wah: Proceedings of the Chambesy Dialogue Consultation (Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1982). 62 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths (Herndon, Va.: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1986). 63 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, Islam and Culture (Kuala Lumpur: ABIM, 1980). 64 Conversation with the author in 1982. 65 Mohamad Fathi Osman, “Towards a Vision and an Agenda for the Future of Muslim Ummah,” in Islam: A Contemporary Perspective, ed. Muhammad Ahmadullah Siddiqui (Chicago: NAAMPS, 1994), 13–22. 66 Maher Hathout, “Islamic Work in North America: Challenges and Opportunities,” in Muhammad Ahmadulla Siddiqui, Islam, 13. 102 Notes to pp. 39–43 67 Salam al-Marayati, “Formulating an Agenda of Political Actions for North American Muslims,” in Muhammad Ahmadulla Siddiqui, Islam, 64–69. 68 Al-Marayati, “Formulating an Agenda,” 70. Chapter 2 1 George W. Bush, “Remarks by the President at Islamic Center of Washington, D.C.,” accessed September 22, 2005, http://georgewbush -whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010917-11.html. 2 Muzammil Siddiqui, “Unity and Diversity: Islamic Perspective,” 1, accessed June 3, 2007, http://www.theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/ features/articles/unity_and_diversity_islamic_perspective/. 3 The alternative term coined for privatization is takhsis. ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid, “Bay‘ al-I‘lam al-‘Arabi,” al-Majalla, no. 707 (August 14–20, 1994): 13. 4 Jabir Sa‘id ‘Awad, “Mafhum al-Ta‘addudiyya fi al-Adabiyyat al-Mu‘asira: Muraja‘a Naqdiyya,” in Nadwat al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya wa alTa ’ifiyya wa al-‘Irqiyya fi al-‘Alam al-‘Arabi (Herndon, Va.: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1993), 2. 5 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, “Common Bases between the Two Religions in Regard to Convictions and Points of Agreement in the Spheres of Life,” in Seminar of the Islamic-Christian Dialogue (Tripoli: Republic Office of Foreign Relations, Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, 1981), 229–64. 6 Muhammad ‘Abduh, Al-A‘mal al-Kamila, tahqiq wa-taqdim Mohammad ‘Imara (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1993), 3:291–92. 7 Abduh, Al-A‘mal, 3:290. 8 ‘A’isha ‘Abd al-Rahman, Al-Isra’iliyyat fi al-Ghazu al-Fikri ([Cairo], 1975); Anwar al-Jindi, Afaq Jadadah fi al-Adab wa-al-Tarikh wa-al-Tarajum ([Cairo]: Maktaat al-Anjulu al-Misriyah, [1978]), 20–22; Salim ‘Ali alBahnasawi , Al-Ghazu al-Fikri li al-Tarikh wa al-Sira bayn al-Yamin wa al-Yasar (Kuwait, 1985), 111–47; ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Halim Mahmud, Al-Ghazu al-Fikri wa al-Tayyarat al-Mu‘adiya li al-Islam (Riyad, 1984); Hassan Muhammad Hassan, Wasa’il Muqawamat al-Ghazu al-Fikri li-al-‘Alam al-Islami (Mecca, [1981]); ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Halim Mahmud, Al-Ghazu al-Fikri wa-Atharuhu fi al-Mujtama‘ al-Islami al-Mu‘asir (Kuwait, 1979); ‘Ali Muhammad Jarisha and Muhammad Sharif al-Zaybaq, Asalib al-Ghazu al-Fikri li-al-‘Alam al-Islami (Cairo, [1977]); Muhammad Faraj, Al-Islam fi Mu‘tarak al-Sira‘ al-Fikri al-Hadith (Cairo, 1962); Muhammad Jalal Kishk, Al-Ghazu al-Fikri (Cairo, 1975). 9 The early students who went to Europe were grounded in their own culture : “there was no room for western thought to invade their personality and distort their identity.” Under colonialism, the door was opened for missionary schools and foreign educational institutions from every race, Notes to pp. 44–48 103 religion, and language. “They received our young, impressionable children and promised to educate them, enculturate them, and guide them, to fashion them as strangers in their own lands in language, thought, and consciousness . They were freed from the complex of disdain for the European, which was replaced with an inferiority complex toward westerners due to the long insistence of the soldiers of the secular and [Christian] missionaries on their conscience and intellect that Eastern is a symbol for retardation and backwardness, Arabic language is the source of underdevelopment and disease , while Islam is the image of ossification and sterility.” ‘Abd al-Rahman, Al-Isra’iliyyat, 58–59. 10 Sayyid Qutb, Fi Zilal al-Qur’an, 6 vols. (Beirut, 1980), 2:816. 11 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:828. 12 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:829. 13 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:874. 14 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 3:1564. For further reflection on the issue, see Fahmi Huwaydi, Li’l-Islam Dimuqratiyya (Cairo, 1993), 32–34. 15 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:908. 16 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:910. 17 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 2:915. 18 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 3:1620. 19 Qutb, Fi Zilal, 3:1633. 20 Mohammed Arkoun, Al-Hawamil Wa-al-shawamil: hawl Al-Islam Al-mus‘asir (Beirut: Dar al-Tali‘ah, 2010), 16. 21 Ahmad al-Shuqayri, al’A‘mal al-kamilah; taqdim Anis Sayigh; tahrir Khayriyah Qasimiyah (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wahdah al-‘Arbiyah, 2006), 20. 22 Rajab Madkur, Al-Takfir wa al-Hijra Wajhan li-Wajh (Cairo, 1985); Nu‘man ‘Abd al-Raziq al-Samirra’i, Al-Takfir: Judhuruh-AsbabuhMubarriratuh (Jiddah, 1984); Salim ‘Ali al-Bahnasawi, Al-Hukm wa Qadiyyat Takfir al-Muslim (Kuwait, 1985); Hassan al-Hudaybi, Du‘at la Qudat (Beirut, 1978); Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya bayn al-Juhud wa al-Tatarruf, Kitab al-Umma 4 (Doha, Qatar, 1985); Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Zahirat al-Ghuluww fi al-Takfir (Kuwait, 1985); Muhammad ‘Abd al-Hakim Hamid, Zahirat al-Ghuluww fi al-Din fi al-‘Asr al-Hadith (Cairo, 1991). 23 Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Ghayr al-Muslimin fi al-Mujtama‘ al-Islami (Beirut, 1983). 24 Al-Qaradawi, Ghayr al-Muslimin, 7–12. 25 Al-Qaradawi, Ghayr al-Muslimin, 49. 26 Al-Qaradawi, Ghayr al-Muslimin, 20–23, 41. 27 Al-Qaradawi, Ghayr al-Muslimin, 80–81. 28 Qutb’s most radical ideas were published in his Milestones and his commentary on the Qur’an, Fi Zilal al-Qur’an. Cf. “Sayyid Qutb: Ideologue of Islamic Revival,” in Esposito, ed., Voices of Resurgent Islam, 67–98; Yvonne 104 Notes to pp. 48–53 Yazbeck Haddad, “The Qur’anic Justification for an Islamic Revolution,” Middle East Journal 37, no. 1 (1982): 14–29. 29 For a discussion of his life and work, see Charles J. Adams, “Mawdudi and the Islamic State,” in Esposito, ed., Voices of Resurgent Islam, 99–133; cf. K. Ahmad and Z. I. Ansari, eds., Islamic Perspectives: Studies in Honour of Sayyid Abul A’la al-Mawdudi (Leicester: Islamic Foundation, 1979). 30 Zaki Ahmad, “Al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya fi al-Fikr al-Islami al-Mu‘asir,” in Nadwat al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya, 1. 31 The symposium took place in Amman, Jordan, October 25–27, 1986, and the proceedings were published in Majallat al-Ufuq al-‘Arabi, no. 9 (1987). 32 The Symposium on Political Pluralism in the Arab World was sponsored by the Center for Arab Unity in Amman, Jordan, March 26–28, 1989. The proceedings were published in Muntada al-Fikr al-‘Arabi. 33 Mustafa Mashhur, “Al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya,” Al-Sha‘b, October 4, 1993; Salah al-Sawi, Al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Siyasiyya fi al-Islam (Cairo, 1992). 34 The proceedings were published in Majallat Minbar al-Sharq 1 (1992). 35 Muhyi al-Din ‘Atiyyah, “Al-Ta‘addudiyya: Qa’ima Biblioghrafiyya Intaqat,” in Nadwat al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya. The bibliography included the papers delivered at a symposium on Pluralism in Political Parties, Sects, and Race in the Arab World sponsored by the International Institute of Islamic Thought in Herndon, Virginia, November 26–December 1, 1993. 36 For a study of reflections on the role of Christians in an Islamic state, see Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “Christians in a Muslim State: The Current Egyptian Debate,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Wadi Zaidan Haddad (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995). Cf. ‘Abd al-malik Salman, “Al-Tasamuh Tijah al-Aqalliyyat Kadarura li al-Nahda,” in Nadwat al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya. 37 Ahmad, “Al-Ta‘addudiyya,” 1. 38 Muhammad Salim al-‘Awwa, Fi al-Nizam al-Siyasi li al-Dawla al-Islamiya (Cairo: Dar Al-Shuruq, 1989), 12. 39 Fahmi Huwaydi, Muwatinun la Dhumiyyun: Mawqi‘ Ghayr al-Muslimin fi Mujtama‘ al-Muslimin (Beirut, 1985). 40 S. 5:69, 109:6, 5:48, 6:35, 10:99. 41 Huwaydi, Muwatinun, 225. 42 Muhammad ‘Amara, ed., “Al-Ta‘addudiyya: al-Ru’ya al-Islamiyya wa alTahadiyat al-Gharbiyya,” in Nadwat al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Hizbiyya, 3–14. 43 Abduh, Al-A‘mal, 3:283. 44 See, e.g., S. 6:98-99 35:27-28, 30:22, 49:13. Ahmad, “Al-Ta‘addudiyya,” 6. Cf. Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim, Al-Ta‘addudiyya al-Siyasiyya wa al-Dimuqratiyya fi al-Watan al-‘Arabi (Amman, 1989), proceedings of a conference held March 26–28, 1989. 45 Huwaydi, Li’l-Islam, 22. 46 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam in Global Inter-Religious Dependence,” in al-Faruqi, Islam and Other Faiths, 72. Originally printed Notes to pp. 53–59 105 in The Challenge of Islam, ed. A. Gauhar (London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1978), 82–111. Reprinted in Towards a Global Congress of the World’s Religions, ed. Warren Lewis (Barrytown, N.Y.: Unification Theological Seminary, 1980), 19–38. Hereinafter cited as Islam and Other Faiths. 47 Al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam,” 74–75. 48 Al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam,” 91–92. 49 Al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam,” 140. 50 Al-Faruqi, “Islam and Other Faiths.” Reprinted in al-Faruqi, Islam and Other Faiths, 138. 51 Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, “Islam and Christianity: Diatribe or Dialogue,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 5 (1968): 45–77. Reprinted in al-Faruqi, Islam and Other Faiths, 269. 52 Al-Faruqi, “Islam and Other Faiths,” 151. 53 Al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam,” 72. 54 Al-Faruqi, “The Role of Islam,” 103. 55 Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (Minneapolis: Bibliographica Islamica, 1980, 165–66). 56 Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, 166–67. 57 Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, 167. 58 Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs 72 (1993): 22–49. 59 Mohamed Fathi Osman, The Children of Adam: An Islamic Perspective on Pluralism (Washington, D.C.: Center for Muslim Christian Understanding, 1996), 13. 60 Osman, The Children of Adam, 31. 61 Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 139. 62 Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Qur’an on Religious Pluralism, Occasional Paper Series (Washington, D.C.: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding), 11. 63 Sachedina, The Qur’an, 13. 64 Sachedina, The Qur’an, 16. 65 Sachedina, The Qur’an, 19. 66 Sachedina, The Islamic Roots, 11–14. 67 Khalid Abou El Fadl, The Authoritative and the Authoritarian in Islamic Discourse: A Contemporary Case Study (Dar Taiba, 1997), 16. 68 Sulayman S. Nyang, “Seeking the Religious Roots of Pluralism in the United States of America: An American Muslim Perspective,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 34, no. 3 (1997): 402–17. 69 Nyang, “Seeking the Religious Roots of Pluralism.” 70 Nyang, “Seeking the Religious Roots of Pluralism.” 71 Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism (Oxford: One World, 1997), 78. 106 Notes to pp. 60–64 72 Esack, Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism, 179. 73 Mahmoud Mohamed Taha, The Second Message of Islam, trans. Abdullahi A. An-Na‘im (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987). 74 Taha, The Second Message, 17. 75 Abdullahi A. An-Na‘im, “Religious Minorities under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism,” Human Rights Quarterly 9 (1987): 10. 76 Taha, The Second Message, 11. 77 An-Na‘im, “Religious Minorities,” 10–11. 78 M. A. Muqtedar Khan, “Living on Borderlines: Beyond the Clash of Dialogue,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square, ed. Zahid H. Bukhari, Sulayman S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2004), 90–93. 79 Edward P. Djerejian, “The United States and the Middle East in a Changing World: Diversity, Interaction and Common Aspirations,” policy paper delivered at Meridian House and at the Middle East Institute’s 46th Annual Conference, October 16, 1992. http://www.disam.dsca.mil/pubs/ Vol%2014_4/Djerejian.pdf. Cf. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “The ‘New Enemy’? Islam and Islamists after the Cold War,” in Altered States: A Reader in the New World Order, ed. Phyllis Bennis and Michel Moushabeck (New York: Olive Branch Press, 1993), 83–94. 80 Mona Siddiqui, “Islam: Issues of Political Authority and Pluralism,” Political Theology 7, no. 3 (2006): 338. 81 Mona Siddiqui, “Islam,” 339. 82 Husain Kassim, Legitimizing Modernity in Islam: Muslim Modus Vivendi and Western Modernity (Lewiston, Maine: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005), 138–46. 83 See Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “Islamist Depictions of Christianity in the Twentieth Century,” Islam and Christian Muslim Relations 11, no. 3 (2000): 75–94. 84 Khalid Abou El Fadl, The Place of Tolerance in Islam (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002), 17. 85 Omid Safi, Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism (Oxford: One World, 2003). 86 Jack O’Sullivan, “If You Hate the West, Emigrate to a Muslim Country,” Guardian, October 8, 2001, features pages, 4. 87 O’Sullivan, “If You Hate the West.” 88 Sherman A. Jackson, Islam and the Black American: Looking toward the Third Resurrection (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). 89 Don Lattin, “North American Muslims Ponder Effect of 9/11 on Them,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 2, 2002, A3. 90 O’Sullivan, “If You Hate the West.” Notes to pp. 65–69 107 91 Amina Wadud, “Alternative Qur’anic Interpretation and the Status of Women,” in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, ed. Gisela Webb (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 3–21; see also Amina Wadud, Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam (London: One World, 2006). 92 Gwendolyn Zoharah Simmons, “Are We Up to the Challenge? The Need for a Radical Reordering of the Discourse on Women,” in Safi, Progressive Muslims, 235. 93 Sherman A. Jackson, “Islam(s) East and West: Pluralism between No-Frills and Designer Fundamentalism,” in September 11 in History: A Watershed Moment? ed. Mary L. Dudziak (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 112–35. 94 Mona Siddiqui, “Islam,” 348. 95 Umar Faruq Abd-Allah, “Islam and the Cultural Imperative,” Foundation Paper, Nawawi Foundation (Burr Ridge, Ill., 2004), 4. 96 Muzammil Siddiqui, “Unity and Diversity,” 3. 97 Muzammil Siddiqui, “Unity and Diversity,” 4. 98 Nyang, “Seeking the Religious Roots of Pluralism.” Chapter 3 1 Special thanks to my research assistants, Nicholas Reith and Ahmed Humayun, for their help in locating and compiling information for this chapter. This chapter is reprinted by permission of the publishers of “The Shaping of a Moderate North American Islam: Between ‘Mufti’ Bush and ‘Ayatollah’ Ashcroft,” in Islam and the West Post-9/11, ed. Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, and Jane Idleman Smith (Farnham, U.K.: Ashgate, 2004), 97–115. © 2004. 2 See, e.g., Timothy Worthington Marr, “Imagining Orientalism in America from the Puritans to Melville” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997); Marwan M. Obeidat, “The Muslim East in American Literature: The Formation of an Image” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1985). 3 The American Muslim Political Coordinating Council (AMPCC) was formed as an umbrella organization representing the American Muslim Alliance, the American Muslim Council, the Council on American-Islamic Relations, and the American Public Affairs Council. 4 These organizations include the following: (1) The Association of ArabAmerica University Graduates (AAUG), founded in 1967 by professionals , university professors, lawyers, doctors, and many veterans of the Organization of Arab Students (OAS). (2) The National Association of Arab-Americans (NAAA), organized in 1972 and modeled after the proIsraeli lobby the American Israel Public Affairs Committee. Its leadership seeks to meet with members of congress educate Arab Americans on the political process. (3) The American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee 108 Notes to pp. 69–71 (ADC), founded in 1980 by former senator from South Dakota James Aburezk. Modeled after the ADL, its purpose is to fight racism, prejudice and discrimination against Arabs. It is currently the largest Arab-American grassroots organization, with chapters throughout the United States. (4) The Arab American Institute (AAI), established in 1984 when Jim Zogby split with Aburezk. It encourages participation in the political system and seeks to get Arab-Americans to run for office. It has established Democratic and Republican clubs and was active in Jesse Jackson’s run for office in 1988. These organizations are discussed further in chapter 1. 5 They include the following: (1) The American Muslim Alliance (AMA), which focuses on voter registration, political education, and leadership training and seeks Muslim participation as voters and elected officials nationwide in both parties. (2) The American Muslim Council (AMC), established in 1990 with a focus on increasing Muslim participation in the political process. It gained legitimacy by arranging for Muslim religious leaders to open the House of Representatives with a Muslim invocation, hosted hospitality suites at the Democratic and Republican party conventions in 1992 and 1996, and worked for a more balanced Freedom from Religious Persecution Act and for the repeal of “secret evidence.” (3) American Muslims for Global Peace and Justice (Global Peace), established in 1998, which focuses on creating networks working for human dignity, freedom, peace, and justice. (4) American Muslims for Jerusalem (AMJ), incorporated in 1999, which works to present accurate information about Muslim concerns about Jerusalem. (5) The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), established in 1994 to promote a positive image about Islam and Muslims and to seek to empower Muslims in America through political and social activism. (6) The Muslim American Society (MAS), founded in 1992 by the ministry of Warith D. Mohammed to promote a better society. It has a political arm, Muslims for Better Government, that is involved in voter registration and political education. (7) The Islamic Institute, founded in 1998 to create a better understanding between the Muslim community and the political leadership. (8) The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC), which is involved in political activism. The AMA, AMC, and CAIR are discussed further in chapter 1. 6 al-Qazzaz, “The Arab Lobby,” 10. 7 Omar Afzal, “Learn Not Copy: Movements Facing Challenges of the West,” Message, March 1996, 23. 8 Afzal, “Learn Not Copy,” 23. 9 Afzal, “Learn Not Copy,” 23. 10 Netanyahu’s publications include Binyamin Netanyahu, ed., International Terrorism, Challenge and Response: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Conference on International Terrorism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1981); Terrorism: How the West Can Win (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Notes to pp. 74–84 109 1986); Fighting Terrorism: How Democracies Can Defeat Domestic and International Terrorism (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1995). 11 Among the most vociferous is Steven Emerson, who produced the controversial documentary Jihad in America, aired on PBS, in which he claimed that Muslims use mosques for terrorist training. He also appeared before the House International Committee, where he asserted that “radical Islamic networks now constitute the primary domestic—as well as international— national security threat facing the FBI and other law enforcement agencies.” Steven Emerson, “Testimony of Steven Emerson: Subcommittee of Africa House International Relations Committee,” U.S. House of Representatives, April 6, 1995, 4. He was one of the first journalists to ascribe the Oklahoma City bombing to Muslim terrorists, as vindication of his analysis and assessment . He has also published an article (“The Other Fundamentalists,” New Republic, June 12, 1995, 21–30) and has written a book on the topic (American Jihad: The Terrorists Living Among Us [New York: The Free Press, 2002]). 12 “Has the Bush Administration Benefitted Muslim Americans?” Minaret 23, no. 5 (2001): 7. 13 Agha Saeed, “The American Muslim Paradox,” in Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Jane I. Smith (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2002), 39–58. 14 Ihsan Bagby, Paul M. Pearl, and Bryan T. Froehle, “The Mosque in America: A National Portrait,” released by the Council on AmericanIslamic Relations, Washington, D.C., April 26, 2001, 4. 15 “Has the Bush Administration?” 10. 16 “Has the Bush Administration?” 7. 17 Ayesha Ahmad and Neveen A. Salem, “Faiths Come Together at National Cathedral on National Day of Mourning,” Islam On Line, accessed January 31, 2004. 18 “President’s Remarks at National Day of Prayer,” http://georgebush -whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010914-2.html. 19 Other Arab-American and Islamic organizations that joined ADC in the brief include the Muslim Community Association of Ann Arbor, the Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services, Bridge Refugee and Sponsorship Services, the Council on American and Islamic Relations, and the Islamic Center of Portland and Masjid as-Saber, Portland, Oregon. 20 Interview with Fatima Al-Saawegh. 21 Wajih Abu Zikri, “A New American Religion for Muslims,” al-Akhbar, December 26, 2001. FIBIS-NES-2001-1226. 22 Aihwa Ong, “A Multitude of Spaces: Radical versus Moderate Islam,” paper presented at the AAA annual meeting in New Orleans, November 21, 2002. http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTBK/files/ AAA%20Ong%20Revised.PDF. 110 Notes to pp. 84–92 23 Farish A. Noor, “The Other Malaysia: Panopticon Revisited,” November 6, 2002, Malaysikini.org website. http://www.malaysiakini.com/columns/ 20634. 24 Paul Wolfowitz, remarks at a Brookings Institution Issues Forum, September 5, 2002, http://www.brookings.edu/comm/events/20020905 .pdf, pp. 3–13. 25 Jane Perlez, “Muslim-as-Apple-Pie Videos Are Greeted with Skepticism,” The New York Times, October 30, 2002. 26 See, e.g., Mae E. Cheng, “Legal Catch-22 for Immigrants,” Newsday, December 14, 2003. 27 Daniel Pipes, as quoted in Dave Eberhart, “Muslim Moderate Kabbani Firm on Terrorist Nuclear Threat,” Newsmax.com, November 19, 2001. http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2001/11/16/172201.shtml. See also Robert I. Friedman, “The Wobbly Israel Lobby; For the Once Potent AIPAC, It’s Been a Very Bad Year,” Washington Post, November 1, 1992. 28 Martin Peretz, “When America-Haters Become Americans,” New Republic, October 15, 2001. 29 As reported in the Los Angeles Times by Solomon Moore in “Religion; Fiery Words, Disputed Meaning; Statements Made before September 11 Resurface in a Harsh New Light,” November 3, 2002, B20. 30 News release, January 23, 2002. 31 Daniel Pipes, “Identifying Muslim Moderates,” Jewish World Review, 25 November 25, 2003/30 Mar-Cheshvan, 5764, http://www.jewishworld review.com/1103/pipes_2003_11_25.php3. 32 The organizations to be condemned include Abu Sayyaf, Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya, Groupe Islamique Armée, Hamas, Harakat ul-Mujahidin, Hizbullah, Islamic Jihad, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Lashkar-e-Tayyiba, and alQaeda . Pipes, “Identifying Muslim Moderates.” 33 Pipes, “Identifying Muslim Moderates.” 34 Pipes, “Identifying Muslim Moderates.” 35 Pipes, “Identifying Muslim Moderates.” 36 Daniel Pipes, “[Moderate] Voices of Islam,” New York Post, September 23, 2003. http://www.danielpipes.org/1225/moderate-voices-of-islam. 37 Irshad Manji, The Trouble with Islam: A Wake-Up Call for Honesty and Change (Toronto: Random House Canada, 2003). 38 Eberhart, “Muslim Moderate Kabbani Firm.” 39 These include the Islamic Supreme Council of America, the Council for Democracy and Tolerance, the American Islamic Congress, the Society for Humanity and Islam in America, the Ataturk Society, and the Assembly of Turkish American Associations. http://www.Jewishworldview.com/1103/ pipes. 40 George W. Bush, “Presidential Address to the Nation,” October 7, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/2001. Notes to pp. 92–94 111 41 Safi, Progressive Muslims. 42 Ralph Dannheisser, “Islam Compatible with Democracy, Not Monolithic, Muslim Panelists Say,” U.S. Embassy Malaysia, http://usembassymalaysia .org.my/wf/wf0909_islam.html. 43 In re Dow, 213 Fed. 355, 357 (District Court, E.D. South Carolina, 1914), as cited by Moore, Al-Mughtaribun, 53; Khalil A. Bishara, Origin of the Modern Syrian, cited in Michael Suleiman, “Early Arab-Americans: The Search for Identity,” in Crossing the Waters, ed. Hooglund, 44. 44 Samhan, “Politics and Exclusion,” 14. 45 Samhan, “Politics and Exclusion,” 11–28. 46 Samhan, “Politics and Exclusion,” 16. 47 Amy K. Goott and Steven J. Rosen, eds., The Campaign to Discredit Israel (Washington, D.C.: American Israel Public Affairs Committee, 1983), 3–12. 48 Fischbach, “Government Pressures,” 89. 49 The New York Times, May 25, 1973. 50 Samhan, “Politics and Exclusion,” 26, emphasis in the original. 51 Areas designated as the Arab world by the State Department include the Middle East and North Africa. 52 Hamid Mowlana, George Gerbner, and Herbert I. Schiller, eds., Triumph of the Image: The Media’s War in the Persian Gulf—A Global Perspective (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992); Nicholas Berry, Foreign Policy and the Press: An Analysis of The New York Times’ Converage of U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Kenneth I. Vaux, Ethics and the Gulf War: Religion, Rhetoric, and Righteousness (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992). 53 Reeva S. Simon, The Middle East in Crime Fiction: Mysteries, Spy Novels, and Thrillers from 1916 to the 1980s (New York: Lilian Barber Press, 1989); Albert Hourani, Western Attitudes towards Islam (Southampton: Southampton University Press, 1974). 54 Linda Street, Veils and Daggers: A Century of National Geographic’s Representation of the Arab World (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000); Edmund Ghareeb, Split Vision: The Portrayal of Arabs in the American Media (Washington, D.C.: American-Arab Affairs Council, 1983); Janice J. Terry, Mistaken Identity: Arab Stereotypes in Popular Writing (Washington, D.C.: Arab-American Affairs Council, 1985). 55 Jack G. Shaheen, Arab and Muslim Stereotyping in American Popular Culture (Washington, D.C.: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, 1997); Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (New York: Olive Branch Press, 2001); Shaheen, The TV Arab (Bowling Green, Ohio: Popular Press, 1984). ...