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207 Notes INTRODUCTION 1. For more on San Diego, see Hess (2005). For more on Seattle, see Cuban and Usdan (2002), and for St. Louis see Wagman (2003). 2. See also the program website for more details: www.crss.org/tbisb.htm. 3. For more on Vallas, see LaRock (2003b) and Russo (2003). 4. The online supplement, which we refer to throughout the text, can be accessed through either Wong’s website at Brown University (www.brown.edu/ Departments/Education/Education_Mayor) or the website maintained by Shen (www.Education Mayor.com). CHAPTER ONE 1. See also Ravitch (2000). For background on how the field’s understanding of school district politics has evolved, see Eliot (1959), Katz (1987), Callahan (1962), Peterson (1976), Bidwell (1965), Weick (1976), and Rogers (1968). To see how the older view was challenged, see Layton (1982), Burlingame (1988), Boyd (1983), Peterson (1976), Wirt and Kirst (1982), Mitchell (1988), Scribner (1977), and LaNoue (1982). 2. On the details of the budget cuts, see Mirel (1993, 100). 3. Evidence from a study by Hopkins (2004) suggests that mayoral control is more likely to arise in cities that are lagging in retail sales. 4. Zeigler cites Blau and Scott (1962) when drawing this distinction. In line with Zeigler’s initial impressions, two types of models have dominated thinking about school board policymaking. The first—labeled at various times as “professional, 208 NOTES trustee, elite, and hierarchical”—emphasizes professional decision making and the authority of the superintendent. School board members see themselves as trustees who have been put in place to make decisions based on their own best judgment. The second model—known as “political, delegate, arena, or bargaining”—emphasizes the school board member’s links to the citizens that voted him or her into office. In this second model, the board member sees his or her primary responsibility as being responsive to the demands of parents and other concerned citizens. Greene (1992) writes that “previous research suggests that a substantial majority of school boards adopt the professional orientation.” His own conclusions, based on a study of New Jersey school boards, support this general conclusion. Numerous extensions have been suggested to augment these two models. E.g., Peterson and Williams (1972) conceptualize three models of decision making: an “organizational process” model, a “political bargaining ” model, and a “rational decision maker.” Rada (1988) offers a public choice framework for understanding board behavior. 5. In a more recent study, Moe (2005) analyzes survey data from California and finds that teachers’ unions exert strong influence on school board elections and the attitudes of school board candidates. Taken together, these studies challenge the democratic nature of the traditional school board. Related to this body of research is another that has called into question the democratic nature of local council elections. Prewitt (1970) found that city council members are often selected as replacements to fill terms, thus circumventing a vote altogether. Prewitt and Ealau (1971) further called into question the democratic nature of local elections. From a public choice perspective, Weeres and Cooper (1992) have pointed out that urban school boards may engage in logrolling. 6. For a quick introduction to reform unionism, see Hardy (2005). 7. See also Portz (1996). The issue of race pervades all forms of local government, not just mayor–council cities. Moore (2002) studied black representation in council– manager cities and found that only slightly over 1 percent of all city managers in the country are black. The black community must have a critical mass of population and a share of the city council positions in order to get a black city manager put into place. CHAPTER TWO 1. The bill was introduced as Ohio S. B. 146: “To amend section 3311.71 of the Revised Code to require that management and control of any school district that has an average daily membership exceeding forty thousand students, has a relatively high poverty index, and has been in academic emergency at least one of the four previous school years be assumed by a nine-member board of education appointed by the mayor of the municipal corporation containing the greatest portion of the district’s territory.” The text of the original bill can be found at www.legislature.state.oh.us/ bills.cfm?ID=126_SB_46. 2. As we discuss in greater detail in chapter three, due to the smaller size of Harrisburg and Trenton, these districts are not included in the empirical analysis. We present small summaries here to alert readers to the...