Distant Provinces in the Inka Empire: Toward a Deeper Understanding of Inka Imperialism

Seven - The Organization of Inka Silver Production in Porco, Bolivia

Editors’ Introduction The most important contribution of this chapter is its assessment of the degree of imperial control in provinces that were distant and ecologically marginal and with low population levels, but that nevertheless held valuable resources for the Inkas. This was the case of Porco, the silver mines located near the city of Potosí, in what was the territory of Qaraqara. Although this chapter is part of an ongoing research project, the results are already suggestive. Based on a survey around Porco, including limited excavations, ethnohistorical research, and ethnoarchaeological data, the authors of this chapter highlight the economic importance of this region for the Inkas as a source of valuable metals, including silver. In a region of poor agricultural potential and low population densities, the Inkas intensified the extraction of metal by creating imperial mining facilities staffed with mit’a and mitmaq laborers. Whereas nonlocal mit’a workers, perhaps ofLupacaandCarangaorigins,wereinchargeofnonspecializedlabor,including the mining, collection, and extraction of ores on a temporal basis, the smelting in wind (huayrachinas) and refining furnaces was conducted by nonlocal specialists. Mary Van Buren and Ana María Presta Chapter Seven The Organization of Inka Silver Production in Porco, Bolivia 174 van buren and presta Altogether, these findings are important to understand the Inka imperial strategies of control in distant, although critical, pockets of metal extraction . Taking into account the Inka alliances with the Qaraqara lords, thedifferenttrajectoriesoftwoQaraqararegions—PorcoandCinti—are striking. Whereas Cinti did not evidence direct imperial control, Porco was the focus of direct imperial intervention. This difference supports the assertion that despite privileged alliances with local lords, the Inka Empire sought to centralize control over the production of valuable ritual and sumptuary goods. In the case here, this held true even when ecological and demographic conditions were adverse. For Porco, this implied the construction of imperial facilities “de novo” near mining sources, including residential areas, a support agricultural base, and the installation of facilities dedicated to the processing of metals. Second, it highlights that despite such limitations, Inka control in areas with key resources was targeted and selectively intense (Williams and D’Altroy 1998). Introduction Thesearch formineral wealth was the primary motiveforInkaexpansion into the southern Andes, and Porco, in southern Bolivia, was one of the most important mines in the empire, supplying the silver that adorned the Coricancha in Cuzco (Cieza de León 1963:385) and the royal litter on which the Inka ruler was transported (Ocaña 1969). This chapter is based on an ongoing investigation of Porco, the overarching goal of which is to illuminate the organization of both prehispanic and Colonial period silver production in an attempt to better understand how different political regimes approached the extraction of a highly valued resource. The focus here is specifically on the nature of Inka control over the production of silver, an issue that will be examined in light of data derived from excavation , limited survey, historical sources, and observation of contemporary smelting practices. The research conducted thus far suggests that Inka exploitation of this zone was shaped by a convergence of different factors, including the skills demanded by the extractive process as well as imperial interests and local conditions. It also indicates that Inka control over mining and smelting was direct, and thus supports both Costin’s (1996) predictions regarding the level of centralized control over the production Inka Silver Production in Porco, Bolivia 175 of ritual and sumptuary items and Berthelot’s (1986) document-based model of Inka mining. Geographic and Historical Background Porco is located in the Cordillera Oriental of southwestern Bolivia, 35 kilometers to the southwest of the mining center of Potosí (figure 7.1). The villageandeponymousminesaresituatedinalargecaldera(Cunningham et al. 1994) on the southern edge of the Los Frailes volcanic field at an elevation of 4,000 meters. The surrounding landscape is characterized by jagged ridges and aeolian dunes formed by the prevailing southwesterly winds. Annual precipitation is approximately 200 millimeters, and the area experiences only two frost-free months per year (Montes de Oca 1989:figure 4.4, table 4.5). As a result of the extremely arid, cold conditions , agricultural production today is limited to the occasional pasturing of sheep and llamas, although some households supplement their diets with haba beans and tubers produced in small fields along the San Juan River,6kilometerstothewestofPorco.Theclosestagriculturallyproductive regions of any size are the lower, temperate valleys along the Yura and Caiza rivers, approximately 35 kilometers to the...