Sephardi Family Life in the Early Modern Diaspora

5. Sephardi Women in Holland’s Golden Age

h 5 i Sephardi Women in Holland’s Golden Age tirtsah levie bernfeld It was not easy to approach the Sephardi women of Holland’s Golden Age. As he toured Amsterdam, an English traveler was greatly surprised that Sephardi men kept their wives restrained, essentially as prisoners.1 Had he gone to Hamburg, he would probably have noticed the same; there, Hakham Moses Israel ordained, in the 1660s, that Sephardi women should not go out unprotected unless to see a neighbor.2 In Amsterdam,the position of women seemed quite similar to that of women on the Iberian Peninsula. They were mainly confined to their homes and families , a phenomenon influenced by Spain’s Arab heritage.3 The influence of Muslim culture could also be observed in the Levant; Jewish women in seventeenthcentury Jerusalem were expected to stay at home.4 The lives of Jewish women in other parts of the Ottoman Empire were described as mostly revolving around the family and the house.5 This image stood in striking contrast to the great freedom of movement of Ashkenazi and non-Jewish females, who were present all over the streets of Amsterdam and were active in many aspects of the economic, social, and intellectual life of the Dutch Republic.6 Was the contrast really so great? Did the position of Dutch Sephardi women really differ so much from that of their surroundings? In fact, Amsterdam Sephardi women seemed to hide, not only behind their veils and facades but also behind a male identity. Often, their names did not appear in their own right; rather, they were also identified and registered as wife, widow, daughter, orphan , or mother/mother-in-law of a given man.7 If women’s issues among the Amsterdam Portuguese were at stake, the topic was dealt with through male eyes and perspectives. 178 tirtsah levie bernfeld Nevertheless, Sephardi women could be seen in the so-called Dutch Jerusalem . Charles Ogier must have observed them at close range when he noted the similarity of Sephardi women to other women in the city, except for the color of their eyes and their neat and aristocratic appearance.8 Many artists depicted them at home or in the streets, walking with their fans or pulled by horses while seated on the couches of their carraiges.9 The presence of Sephardi women can be felt even more in notarial deeds, including in last wills and inventories, letters, tax registers, lists of relief to the poor, criminal records, archives of Christian churches in the city, and in the administration of hevrot. There they appeared alive and well, with a broad spectrum of identities: rich and poor; single, married, and widowed; withdrawn in their mansions or in their little rooms, yet actively involved in business and social life; women living in an atmosphere of extravagance and those whose poverty spurred them to beg for help; honest women, but also madams living as thieves and prostitutes; senhoras who were very dedicated to Jewish life and those who were indifferent or even turned their backs to it. The City of Amsterdam, Frederick de Wit, Amsterdam, ca. 1698. Courtesy of Special Collections, University of Amsterdam. Sephardi Women in Holland’s Golden Age 179 This chapter examines the different identities of Sephardi women—discerning their financial status and whereabouts, educational background, work, family life, social activities, and Jewish identity. Various sources allow a view behind the scenes and help to unveil different aspects of the position of Sephardi women, within their own community and relative to the wider world. Thus, this chapter contributes to the investigation of the history of gender issues among the Dutch Sephardim in early modern times, a field in need of deeper exploration.10 Figures At the end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seventeenth century , an organized Jewish community developed in Amsterdam, especially established for immigrants from Spain and Portugal, former New Christians or conversos who were transformed into “New Jews” in the city.11 Many had fled inquisitorial persecutions and a fearful existence on the Iberian Peninsula, and were attracted by the economic opportunities of the newly established Dutch Republic. The relative tolerance that was foremost in a city like Amsterdam was another asset; though, even here, there were restrictions.12 Soon, the Sephardi community built a reputation of wealth and benevolence that became well known all over Europe. It stimulated a...