Contested Policy: The Rise and Fall of Federal Bilingual Education in the United States, 1960-2001

APPENDIX

APPENDIX EXTENDED BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY INTRODUCTION The following is an extended bibliographic essay of the primary and secondary sources written from 1960 to 2001 that can be used to do an indepth history of this policy. The essay is organized into the three major stages of the policy-making cycle as discussed by James E. Anderson: the formation, implementation, and impact or evaluation stage.1 The first stage involves all those factors that influence the development and enactment of policy. The second one focuses on the process of implementing the policy. The final stage emphasizes the evaluation of this policy and the factors that go into the reauthorization of policy. These three stages comprise one policy-making cycle. Bilingual education policy has gone through six major policy cycles since it was first enacted. In 2001, it entered its seventh policy cycle. Each of these three stages occurred within each policy cycle and repeated themselves in the following ones. The first policy cycle for the federal bilingual education act occurred between 1965 and 1974. It ended with the reauthorization of the bilingual bill in the latter year. Since 1974, this bill has been reauthorized five additional times: 1978, 1984, 1988, 1994, and 2001. This extended essay discusses pertinent literature related to each aspect of these policy cycles. It also has an introductory section focusing on the important contextual factors of the early 1960s influencing the initial arguments for the development of federal bilingual education policy. 117 1 1 8 A P P E N D I X CONTEXTUAL FACTORS IN THE ORIGINS OF FEDERAL BILINGUAL EDUCATION POLICY, 1960–1965 The origins of the contemporary bilingual education movement began in the early 1960s. Although initiated by language specialists and educators involved in the promotion of foreign languages in the elementary schools, several significant developments in the area of bilingual research, the black civil rights movement, federal legislation, and the Chicano movement influenced this incipient movement. Research on Bilingualism Bilingualism research questioned two prominent myths in education: the myth of the negative impact of bilingualism on intelligence and academic achievement and the myth of the melting pot thesis or assimilation . For two important articles showing the positive impact of bilingualism on intelligence see Elizabeth Peal and Wallace Lambert, “The Relation of Bilingualism to Intelligence,” Psychological Monographs, General and Applied 76 (1962): 1–23 and Joshua Fishman, “Bilingualism, Intelligence, and Language Learning,”Modern Language Journal 49 (March 1965): 227–37. For several important studies showing the positive impact of bilingualism on school achievement see Eleanor Thonis, Bilingual Education for Mexican American Children: A Report of an Experiment Conducted in Marysville Joint Unified School District, Marysville, California, Oct. 1966–June, 1967 (Sacramento, CA: California Dept. of Education, 1967); NEA, Pero No Invencibles—The Invisible Minority (Washington, D. C.: NEA, Dept. of Rural Supervision, 1966); and Wallace E. Lambert and G. Richard Tucker, Bilingual Education of Children: The St. Lambert Experiment (Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc., 1972). A. Cohen, A Sociolinguistic Approach to Bilingual Education (Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc., 1976) aptly summarized the new findings on bilingualism and learning of the 1960s. He noted that by the end of this decade the Spanish-speaking children instructed bilingually, the term used for English-language learners then, tended to perform as well in English language skills and in the content areas as comparable students taught only in English. At the same time, he added, these children A P P E N D I X 1 1 9 were developing language skills in Spanish. Anglo students in bilingual programs, in turn, did not appear adversely affected in their English language development and in the content subjects, and were learning a second language, Spanish. Research on bilingualism also raised questions about assimilation. Scholars found that certain minority groups, especially the Spanish- and French-speaking, maintained their language abilities and cultural identity over time. They, in other words, were not melting. See, for instance, Joshua Fishman, “The Status and Prospects of Bilingualism in the U.S.,” Modern Language Journal 49 (March 1965): 143–155; Chester C. Christian, Jr., “The Acculturation of the Bilingual Child,” Modern Language Journal 69 (March, 1965): 160–65; and Joshua Fishman, Language Loyalty in the United States (The Hague: Mouton, 1966). For more general information on the myth of the melting pot in the U.S. see Nathan Glazer and Danial Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians , and...