-
New (?) Answers to Old Questions: Literacy Development in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Learners
- Gallaudet University Press
- Chapter
- Additional Information
New(?)AnswerstoOldQuestions LiteracyDevelopmentinDeafand Hardof HearingLearners Connie Mayer and Beverly J. Trezek Even the most cursory review of the literature in the field would reveal a wealth of questions related to the literacy development of deaf and hard of hearing (D/HH) learners.1 This is not surprising given that reading and writing outcomes for this population have remained persistently low relative to their hearing age peers for more than a century despite shifts in communication philosophies and pedagogical approaches (Mayer, 2007; Trezek, Wang, & Paul, 2010). While there is no dearth of questions as to why this is the case, answers are decidedly lacking, especially if these answers are meant to inform practices that effect positive change in literacy outcomes for D/HH learners. It remains the case that the median reading level for an 18-year-old deaf student is fourth grade, that of a typical hearing 9-year-old (Allen, 1986; Traxler, 2000), with little evidence that any intervention or approach to date has been successful in changing this statistic (Marschark & Spencer, 2003; Moores, 2010; Mayer & Akamatsu, 2003; Trezek, Wang, & Paul, 2010). Ourgoalinthischapteristorevisitthesequestionsandproposeanswersthat we believe will encourage discussion and debate and prompt an examination 1. While recognizing that the term “literacy” can be interpreted in multiple ways, in this chapter the discussion is confined to text-based literacy (i.e., reading and writing). 62 New (?) Answers to Old Questions 63 of current research and practice. Such rethinking is particularly relevant at a time when a fundamental shift in the context for literacy learning for D/HH students has taken place. The advent of early identification through newborn hearingscreeningallowsforearlierintervention,andadvancesinamplification technology (particularly cochlear implants) afford greatly enhanced access to spoken language. These shifts have created a climate of raised expectations that greater numbers of D/HH learners will achieve age-appropriate literacy outcomes. In addition, in the field of literacy more broadly, there has been a shift to evidence-based practice, raising particular questions in the field of D/HH literacy education, where many pedagogical claims are underpinned by a singular lack of research evidence. To focus and frame our discussion, we identify and address five questions that we view as central to any discussion of the literacy development of D/ HH learners, and that have typified the discourse over time. The first two questions focus on the foundations necessary for every student to learn to read and write. In question three, we identify the particular challenges that D/HH literacy learners face and discuss them in terms of these foundations. The last two questions focus on the future and the extent to which the identified issues remain relevant in the current climate of change. 1. How Does Language Underpin the Development of Literacy? Reading and writing are processes rooted in language. This may seem an obvious point, but it cannot be over emphasized, especially in the case of D/HH learners, who have historically faced challenges developing the language upon which literacy depends. While we would not suggest that reading and writing are simply a natural extension of spoken language, it is nevertheless the case that language competence is a prerequisite for literacy development in both the first (L1) (Adams, 1990; Oakhill & Cain, 2007) and second (L2) language (for a discussion see Bialystok, 2006). Both comprehension and production of text involve processing language at many different levels. Literacy development is affected by a learner’s preexisting language development, including the understanding of word meanings, the ability to comprehend syntax at the sentence level, and the structuring of phonological knowledge (Goswami, 2008). Beyond this, readers and writers must integrate information from the sequence of sentences that constitute a [54.221.110.87] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 21:58 GMT) 64 Connie Mayer and Beverly J. Trezek text in order to create a coherent whole, incorporating whatever background knowledge is necessary to make sense of it. Accomplishing this complex activity depends on understanding the language in its spoken form, prompting Cain and Oakhill (2007) to argue that “with the exception of translating the written symbols on the page into their spoken form, these processes are common to understanding spoken discourse as well” (p. 5). Hearing children typically come to the task of learning to read and write with a language system that has been developing for four or more years and is well in place. This language has not been “taught” but rather acquired from birth by engaging in meaningful interactions with contingently responsive interlocutors (usually the parents), who are already capable users...