Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans and African Americans in a World of Empire and Jim Crow

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205 Abbreviations AASP Arthur A. Schomburg Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y. AHPVC Archivo Histórico Provincial de Villa Clara, Santa Clara, Cuba AMP Arthur Mitchell Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, Ill. BTW Booker T. Washington BTWP Booker T. Washington Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. CBP Claude Barnett Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, Ill. GP The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, edited by Robert A. Hill, 7 vols. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983–90) LHP Langston Hughes Papers, James Weldon Johnson Memorial Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. NCNWP Papers of the National Council of Negro Women, National Archives for Black Women’s History, Mary McLeod Bethune Council House, Washington, D.C. NW Negro World RA Registro de Asociaciones, Archivo Nacional de Cuba, Havana RG Record Group USNA National Archives and Records Administration, Northeast Region, New York, N.Y. WPPA William Pickens Papers (Additions), Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y. Notes 206 Notes to Pages 1–8 Introduction 1 Betancourt, “Castro and the Cuban Negro.” 2 See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, 113–40. Of course the author of The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon, had warned decolonizing populations about the “pitfall of national consciousness” in this exact period. See Wretched of the Earth, 148–205. 3 See Plummer, “Castro in Harlem”; Gosse, “African-American Press Greets the Cuban Revolution” and Where the Boys Are, 147–54; and Mealy, Fidel and Malcolm X. 4 American studies scholar Cynthia Young highlights the impact of the Cuban Revolution on the emergence of a U.S. “Third World Left” in which African American activists played a prominent role. See Soul Power, 18–53. 5 Clifford, Routes, 249–50. The notion of “routes” informed Paul Gilroy’s notion of the Black Atlantic. See Black Atlantic. 6 For a useful intellectual history of the diaspora concept as it pertains to Afrodescended populations, see Edwards, “Uses of Diaspora.” 7 See, for example, Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas; and Butler, “Defining Diaspora.” 8 Along with the voluminous scholarship on slavery, the scholarship on Cuba’s relationship to the African diaspora is dominated by studies of Afro-Cuban religions inspired by the anthropological and folkloric studies of Fernando Ortiz and Lydia Cabrera. See, for example, Ortiz, Hampa afrocubana; Cabrera, La sociedad secreta Abakuá; Brandon, Santería from Africa to the New World; and Fernández Robaina, Hablen paleros y santeros. 9 On the “live dialogue” between Africa and the Americas, see Matory, “AfroAtlantic Culture” and “English Professors of Brazil”; and Gomez, Reversing Sail. 10 On racialization in twentieth-century Cuba, see Fernández Robaina, El Negro en Cuba; Helg, Our Rightful Share and “Black Men”; Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba; de la Fuente, Nation for All; and Bronfman, Measures of Equality. 11 Earl Lewis, “To Turn as on a Pivot.” 12 Among the historians who have recently been reemphasizing the transnational dimensions of African American history, see Robin D. G. Kelley’s many essays, especially “‘But a Local Phase of a World Problem’”; Brock and Castañeda Fuertes, Between Race and Empire; Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans; and Gaines, American Africans in Ghana. 13 On Afro-Cuban attention to African American struggles for citizenship rights, see Schwartz, “Cuba’s Roaring Twenties”; Bronfman, Measures of Equality, 144– 46; and Rebecca Scott, Degrees of Freedom. On the limits of the concept of identity , see Cooper and Brubaker, “Beyond Identity.” 14 Edwards, Practice of Diaspora. 15 Verrill, Cuba of Today, 205–7; Inglish, “Transportation System of the United Fruit Company.” 16 On U.S. military interventions in this period, see Schmidt, United States Occupa- Notes to Pages 8–11 207 tion of Haiti; and Calder, Impact of Intervention. On the cultural ramifications of the U.S. presence in this period, see Pérez, On Becoming Cuban; Renda, Taking Haiti; and Gobat, Confronting the American Dream. 17 Here I am following historian Frederick Cooper’s call for greater historical specificity in the writing of transregional histories. See “What Is the Concept of Globalization Good For?” This U.S.-Caribbean formulation is also inspired by scholarship on the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean worlds in the early modern and modern periods, as well as the histories of the “South Atlantic” or the “AfricanPortuguese ” worlds. See, for example, Braudel, Mediterranean and the Mediterranean...