In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

91 Chapter Four war comes to the creeks When the dust finally settled from the New Madrid aftershocks, Creek people saw clearly that American travel through their homelands had increased since the end of 1811. The transformation of what was once a narrow post path to a broad wagon road meant that more people could enter the nation faster. At least 3,700 people passed through Creek country from October 1811 to March 1812, including 120 wagons, 80 carts, 30 chairs, and 3 four-wheeled vehicles.∞ Considering that this was all ill-advised wintertime travel, the numbers for the drier months (April through September) must have been even higher. While not all Creeks, nor indeed all southern Indians, would heed Tecumseh’s call to war, all of them would soon experience its consequences . For many, the profusion of American roads through the Indian Country was a reason to take up arms, and the roads themselves would emerge as a theater of bloody battle before year’s end. Reflecting on a journey through Creek country during this era, Margaret Austill recalled, ‘‘As soon as we entered the Creek or Muskogee Nation, we could see the terrible hatred to the white, but as we advanced, we were joined by many movers, which gave us more security.’’≤ Her comment re- flects two undeniable realities of American travel in the Creek Nation. Many Creeks were opposed to it and yet it continued to increase. Opposition was to be expected in certain parts of Creek country, especially in the Upper province where Hawkins and his civilization plan were generally less popular .≥ But even Creeks from previously American-allied talwas had begun resisting the intrusions of travelers by impeding them in any way they could. 92 war comes to the creeks When Hawkins reported that some Lower Creeks had occupied a bridge and stopped travelers, he attributed their actions to a ‘‘thirst for strong drink’’ rather than acknowledging the spread of discontent to the province. Nevertheless , his surprise was evident. As he explained to Secretary of War William Eustis, the perpetrators were from Cusseta, one of the largest towns among the Lower Creeks and one of the closest to the Georgia border. ‘‘Hitherto,’’ he continued, ‘‘they have boasted of their friendship for white people.’’∂ For a leading town of Lower Creeks that Hawkins had consistently and confidently referred to as ‘‘friendly’’ to display such provocative conduct was a symptom of deep and abiding unrest in Creek country. The Creek agent, however, should not have been surprised. At the very same Creek National Council meeting that witnessed Tecumseh’s dramatic call to war, Hawkins had vigorously pressed the road issue, telling the assembled headmen, ‘‘The period has now arrived when the white people must have roads to market and for traveling wherever they choose to go through the United States.’’∑ Although Hawkins claimed he did not need Indian permission to expand the roads, the Creeks were nevertheless promised sundry ‘‘implements of civilization’’ over the course of several years, including 1,000 spinning wheels, 1,000 pairs of cotton cards, and a supply of iron for agricultural implements as part of the agreement.∏ This provision laid bare the relationship between the expanding travel routes through Creek country and the expansion of the civilization program Hawkins cherished. Regardless of their various opinions about the roads, Creek leaders were expected to ‘‘prevent any improper conduct on the part of your young people ’’ as well as providing cooperation, expertise, and support to troops working on the roads.π Headmen who assisted the troops were to be paid in cash and would have some say in the location of bridges and toll stations, at which they would be permitted to collect the required fees. Like the continued division between those who adopted the civilization plan and those who refused it, the split between those who accepted the road and those who opposed it was partly rooted in this system of patronage that Hawkins fostered . Creek leaders who accepted the roads and participated in opening them may have believed that the only real future for Creek people in the South lay in permitting American travel through their lands, accommodating them as far as practicable, and profiting from it whenever possible. Despite pledges made by federal government representatives, the early months of 1812 found the Creek Nation awash in travelers but with none of the promised goods or tolls in hand. Hawkins was frustrated with the government ’s failure to live up...

Share