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Introduction  “Ilivedwithmanyothermen,inabarracks,”ÁlvaroGarcíatoldmeashe snippedacustomer’shair.Hewas,asalways,holdingcourtinthelocalbarbershop heownedinasmallvillageinthecentralpartoftheMexicanstate ofDurango.“Ihadneverdonethat — livedwithothermenbefore — onlywith myfamily.”Thebarbershopservedasacentralmeetingplaceforthepueblo eldersandthuswaswhereIspentmostafternoonsduringmyfieldwork.It wasthesummerof1995.DonÁlvaro,theninhislatesixties,recountedhis taletotheaudienceofseveralmenseatedwithmeonalowwoodenbenchor poisedinthedoorway,allofwhomnoddedinagreement.1 Thismanofacomplicated geographyandsocialpositioningwasblessedwithsalt- and- pepper hairandanengagingsmile,whichheflashedatunexpectedmoments.“Iremember lyinginbedatnight,”hecontinued,“rightbeforethelightswent out,andlistening...Afterwehadbeenthereawhile,afterwehadgotten paidandboughtradios,you’dhearlotsofmusic....You’dheartelevision, aphonograph,too;menboughtthesethings.Ibroughtbackaradiothat usedbatteries...asmallone.Someonewhowentbeforemebroughtback onethatrequiredelectricitywhenwedidn’thaveelectricity....Ilikedthat radio....Onlybraceroshadthem.Theywereprogress.”2  DonÁlvarohadgonenorthaspartofthebraceroprogram,theuno∞cial namefortheseriesofagreementsbetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStates thatbeganin1942,duringWorldWarII,andlastedtill1964.Theprogram broughtMexicanmentotheUnitedStatesfortemporaryworkinagricultural fieldsandthensentthemhomeagain.3 Inourmanyconversations,don Álvarotaughtmemuchaboutwhatitmeanttobeabracero.Hespokeof moderntechnologicalinnovationsandtheprogressthathesought.Between longdaysinthefieldandnightsincrowdedbarracks,donÁlvarolearnedto cuthairandstartedtopracticethistrade.Onhisreturn,heusedthemoney Introduction 2 hehadsavedtobuyafewmoreheadofcattle,investinhisland,andopen thecommunity’sfirstbarbershop.BythetimeImethim,heownedatractor andmoreland,whichheandhiredlaborersworkedafewmorningsaweek. Thebarbershopwasdoingabrisk,ifoftenunpaid,business.Thoughfarfrom wealthy,donÁlvarowasnowoneofthepueblo’smostinfluentialmen.He hadlefthiscountryapoorfarmerandreturnedtobecomeasmallbusiness ownerandprominentlocalcitizen.  DonÁlvaro’supwardmobilitywasnotunique,forthebraceroprogram yieldedeconomicbenefitsformanyofitsnearly2millionparticipants.4  Indeed,hiseconomicbettermentwasunderstoodasaby- productofthe modernizationthattheprogramwasdesignedtoextendtoallbraceros:an individualmodernizationfiguredaskeytoMexico’snationaltransformation. ThestorythatdonÁlvarorecountsalsohasadeepU.S.resonance.Itparallels agrandnarrativeofopportunity,progress,andself- refashioningthatnewly arrivedimmigrantshavebeentoldandwhichsomehavelaterrecitedabout thepromiseoftheirnewnation.Whilethisnarrativeshapedpublicexpectations fortheprogram,itsactualhistoryisnotasimpleaccountofprogress. Rather,thebraceroprogramspurredabroadandcomplicatedremakingof therelationshipsbetweencitizenandnation,stateandworld,whichdidnot mirrorthetrajectoryfrompremoderntomodernthatU.S.andMexicanprogram architectsimaginedfortheMexicanmenwhowouldtravelnorthward. StoriessuchasdonÁlvaro’sspeaktothisdissonancebetweenexpectations heldbyprincipalpartiesandtheactualtransformationsthattheseactors wouldundergo.  Theseexpectations,andthestrugglestorealizethem,areawindowonto theprofoundtransformationsthatoccurred.Thebraceroprograminvolved negotiationsbetweenmanyinfluentialparties,suchasMexicanandU.S. governmento∞cials,growers,andlaboractivists.Yetthoseactorsostensibly lowestontheeconomicladder — thelabormigrantsthemselveswhotraveled fromcommunitiesinMexicotoU.S.agriculturalfieldsandback — also shapedtheprogram.Whenaman(theprogramexcludedwomen)applied tomigrate,hebeganacrossingthatwouldbringhimintocontactwithnot onlyvariousMexicanstaterepresentativesbutalsoothercriticalprogram...

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