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8 Tipping the negotiating hand State-to-State Struggle and the Impact of Migrant Agency  “Iwentonlyonce,”RamónAvitiatoldme,referringtohisbracerojourney.“I didn’tearnmuchmoneyanditwashardwork,butwithwhatImadeIbuilt myhouseandboughtafewcows.”  “Iwentseveraltimes,”donÁlvarosaid.“WhenIcamehomethelasttime, Iopenedthisbarbershop.”  Duringoneofourbarbershopconversations,manymenspokeofcoming andgoingbetweenDurangoandCalifornia.Whethertheywentonceorseveral times,mostmenIspokewithweredrawnbythepromisetheprogram heldout.  “Theysaiditwasanopportunity,”FelipeCastañedatoldus.“Forme,it wasanopportunity,sortof.Myfamilyhasahouse.Mykidsgotshoes.Iwent lotsoftimes.Althoughlifegotbetter,theopportunitycameatacost.”  DonFeliperaisedhisleftarmtoshowascar.1  Opportunityorexploitation:thisdichotomyunderscoresacentraltension intheprogram.Thesemen(indeed,theirnation)hadbeenpromisedthat theprogramwouldbringcapitalandagriculturalknowledgetomodernize Mexicanfarms;menwouldgo,work,learn,andreturn — theend.Theunspoken promisewasfinancialindependenceforindividualsassmallcapitalized yeomanfarmers,andeconomicsovereigntyforMexico.However,aswehave seen,mostbracerosneverachievedthisgoal,nordidmostwantit,though allsoughttheprogram’spromisedrewards.Whenthesewerenotforthcoming ,mencontinuedmigrating,turningasingletripintomanysojournsand arevolvingmigratorydoor.Whenmigrantscouldnolongerheadnorth,they handedthebatontotheirsons,youngerbrothers,nephews,andeventually grandchildren.Forthesemenandmillionsoftheircompatriots,thetripwas lessaloneexperiencethanawayoflife,onebracerosbeganandfamilies continued.Intheend,thejourneyembodiedthecriticalcontradictionsthat The Convergence of Elite Alliances 202 theprogramwasexpectedtoresolve:makingbracerosmodernwhilejumpstarting Mexico’scapabilitytosustaintheirmoderndesiresthroughareturn withcapital.Yetalthoughsomemendidcomebackwithcashandconsumer goods,theyoftencouldnotholdontonewfinancialresourcesoraclaim tobeingmodernwithoutcontinuingtomigrate.Thenecessityofconstant movement,then,isthedarksideofanevermoreintegratedglobalcapitalist system,whereopportunityalwayscomesatacost.  Becausedemandcontinuouslyoutpacedavailability,manymenwanted  tomigratebutdidnotgetcontracts.Somethereforetookmattersintotheir ownhands,crossingtheborderwithoutdocumentsandcontributingtothe “wetback”problem,apejorativecolloquialismforthosewhowadedtheriver.2  Otherscongregatedattheborderhopingforanelusivespot.Bothstrategies calledattentiontomen’sunmetneeds.Severalcriticalmomentsillustrate  thepressurethataspiringmigrantsexertedonstateactors,forthesemen wenttogreatlengthstoaccomplishtheirgoals.Theseactionsandtheirconsequences havemuchtotellusabouttheU.S.- Mexicorelationship,thepossibilities andlimitationsofmodernization,andhowthesemigrantsshaped theseeminglyimperviousterrainofU.S.andMexicanstateoptions. 1948: The el Paso Incident Fromtheprogram’soutset,migrantsreturningwithdollarsinthepockets oftheirnewclothespiquedtheinterestofmanywhohadneverthoughtof headingnorth.Talkofhigherwagesandadventuresoenticedmenwithout contractsthattheyoftenjourneyedtotheborder,eitherinhopesofsneaking acrossortowaitforthenextcontractingsession.Thenumberofcontracts wasraisedafterWorldWarII,urgedbyMexicannegotiators,whoaimed tobringundocumentedmigrantsintothedocumentedstream.3 Butitwas alsodoneatthebehestofU.S.growers.Thisexpansionincontracts,along withtheactionsofitscitizens,undercutMexicano∞cials’abilitytogarner strongprotectionsandenabledtheirU.S.counterpartstowinconcessions.4 Yeteventhisincreasedidnotmeettheseeminglyinsatiabledemand.An October1948reportestimatedthatatleastseventythousandundocumented migrantswereworkingintheUnitedStates;by1952thisfigurehadrisen to1.5million.5 Astaterepresentativecalledita“conservativecalculation” ofthenumberofbraceroswhohadremainedaftertheircontractsexpired; itdidnotincludethosewhohadenteredwithoutthem.However,U.S.and Mexicanborderpatrols,hesaid,wereworkingtogetherto...

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